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HE QUOTATIONS of the 

NEW TESTAMENT FROM THE 
OLD CONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT 
OF GENERAL LITERATURE <s*S*S> 



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FRANKLIN JOHNSON, D. D. 

Professor in the University of Chicago 




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PHILADELPHIA 

AMERICAN BAPTIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY 
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Copyright 1895 by the 
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®1CI 

THE MEMORY OF MY 

FATHER 
Rev. HEZEKIAH JOHNSON 



CONTENTS 



Introductory, ix 

I. The Septuagint Version, i 

II. Quotations from Memory, 29 

III. Fragmentary Quotations, 62 

IV. EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE, 74 

V. Composite Quotations, 92 

VI. Quotations of Substance, 103 

VII. Allegory, 116 

VIII. Quotations by Sound, 139 

I. Change of Reference not involving any material 
change of the words quoted, or of their 
meaning, 140 

II. Change of Reference effected by an intentional 

change of the language quoted, . . . . 1 54 

III. Change of Reference produced without altera- 

tion of the language, but by the use of it in a 

new sense, 167 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

IX. Double Reference, *. . . 186 

I. The Case Stated, 186 

II. The Debate, 186 

III. The Usage of Literatures, 198 

IV. How Double Reference is Indicated, . . . 222 

I. By Means of Overflow of Language, . . . 222 
II. By Means of Types, 224 

V. Double Reference in Scripture, 231 

VI. Final Propositions, 331 

X. Illogical Reasoning, 336 

XL Rabbinic Interpretation, 372 



INTRODUCTORY 



The principal difficulties which have been found 
with the quotations of the New Testament from the 
Old may be stated as follows : 

i. The writers of the New Testament, instead of 
translating their quotations directly from the Hebrew, 
and thus presenting us with exact transcriptions of the 
original text, have taken them generally from the Sep- 
tuagint version, which is not free from faults. 

2. Their quotations from the Septuagint are often 
verbally inexact, *and their variations from this version 
are seldom of the nature of corrections, since they 
seem usually to have quoted from memory. 

3. They sometimes employ quotations so brief and 
fragmentary that the reader cannot readily determine 
the degree of support, if any, which the quotation 
gives to the argument. 

4. They sometimes alter the language of the Old 
Testament with the obvious design of aiding their 
argument. 

5. They sometimes present in the form of a single 
quotation an assemblage of phrases or sentences drawn 
from different sources. 

6. In a few instances they give us, apparently as 
quotations from the Old Testament, sentences which 
it does not contain. 



X INTRODUCTORY 

7. They regard some historical passages of the Old 
Testament as allegories, and thus draw from them in- 
ferences of which the original writers knew nothing. 

8. They often " quote by sound, without regard to 
the sense." 

9. They habitually treat as relating to the Messiah 
and his kingdom passages written with reference to 
persons who lived and events which happened centu- 
ries before the Christian era. 

10. When they understand the passage which they 
quote, they often argue from it in an inconclusive and 
illogical manner, so that the evidence which they ad- 
duce does not prove the statement which they seek to 
support by means of it. 

11. They deal with the Old Testament after the 
manner of the rabbis of their time, which was uncriti- 
cal and erroneous, rather than as men inspired by the 
Holy Spirit to perceive and express the exact truth. 

I present the difficulties thus broadly in the begin- 
ning, that they may be in the mind of every reader as 
he pursues the discussions which follow. I shall ex- 
amine them in the light of general literature. I am 
far from consenting to all the conclusions reached by 
Matthew Arnold in his •' Literature and Dogma " ; yet, 
with him, I think it just to regard the writers of the 
Bible as the creators of a great literature, and to judge 
and interpret them by the laws of literature. They 
have produced all the chief forms of literature, as his- 
tory, biography, anecdote, proverb, oratory, allegory, 
poetry, and fiction. They have needed, therefore, all 
the resources of human speech, its sobriety and scien- 
tific precision on one page, its rainbow hues of fancy 



INTRODUCTORY XI 

and imagination on another, its fires of passion on yet 
another. They could not have moved and guided men 
in the best manner had they denied themselves the 
utmost force and freedom of language ; had they refused 
to employ its wide range of expressions, whether exact 
or poetic; had they not borrowed without stint its 
many forms of reason, of terror, of rapture, of hope, 
of joy, of peace. So also, they have needed the usual 
freedom of literary allusion and citation, in order to 
commend the gospel to the judgment, the tastes, and 
the feelings of their readers. Bearing all this in 
memory, I shall inquire whether in their quotations 
from the Old Testament the writers of the New have 
disregarded the laws of literature. 

These laws are of two kinds : first, those which be- 
long to all literatures of all ages and nations, like that 
of truth, or that of beauty ; and secondly, those which 
change with season and clime, the dictates of eva- 
nescent or local taste and custom, like the absence of 
rhyme from ancient poetry, the parallelism of Hebrew 
poetry, or the alliteration of English poetry. In quot- 
ing from the Old Testament, do the writers of the New 
violate the fundamental law of all literature, which is 
that of truth ? Or do they observe this, and do the 
accusations made against them proceed from forgetful- 
ness, either of the laws of literature in general, or of 
temporary laws, the literary custom, prevalent in their 
age ? The answer will be found in the following pages, 
where I have sought to secure for the writers of the 
New Testament a candid hearing in the court of the 
republic of letters, a commonwealth of which, to say 
the least, they are illustrious citizens. 



Xll INTRODUCTORY 

My argument turns partly upon the modes of ex- 
pression which all great writers of all languages and 
all ages adopt by instinct as the most convenient means 
of transferring their thoughts to others. It also turns 
often upon the special modes of expression employed 
in Greek literature, since the New Testament was 
written in Greek ; and hence something must be said 
here concerning the acquaintance of the authors of 
the New Testament with Greek literature. I shall 
limit the inquiry to the Apostle Paul and the writer 
of the Epistle to the Hebrews, for it is with their quo- 
tations that the chief difficulties are found. 

Little, however, need be said about the unknown 
writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews, for, though his 
style is far from that of Plato or Demosthenes, his 
work shows him to have been a master of the Greek 
tongue in its literary forms. He uses it not lamely, 
partially, stammeringly, but with such ease and power 
as few of the Greeks themselves attained. It has 
been well said 1 that his words are "martialed grandly," 
and "move with the tread of an army, or with the 
swell of a tidal wave." If, as is now generally con- 
jectured, he was Apollos, his skill in the use of Greek 
is explained by the notice of him in the Acts : 2 Apol- 
los was " born at Alexandria, an eloquent man, and 
mighty in the Scriptures." "Born at Alexandria," he 
would use Greek as his native tongue. It was pre- 
cisely at Alexandria that Greek literature was most 
sedulously studied in the apostolic age, and learned 
Jews were not behind others in their admiration of it, 

i By the Rev. William T. C. Hanna. 2 18 : 24. 



INTRODUCTORY Xlll 

as is proved by the writings of Philo, every page of 
which is saturated with it. Moreover, the " eloquence " 
of this man was exhibited in Greek, the language of 
Ephesus and Corinth, where we find him preaching. 
The Greek of the epistle is of an Alexandrian cast ; 
and its eloquence, which is very great, is that of an 
orator, rather than an essayist, for the words are often 
chosen for their sonorous quality, and the whole work 
is marked by a solemn pomp of sound, by resonant 
and harmonious sentences, so that the reader is often 
tempted to think of it as music rather than as lan- 
guage. It would be as absurd to suppose that one 
unacquainted with the best Greek literature wrote this 
epistle, equally wonderful for its language and its 
thought, as to suppose that one unacquainted with the 
best English Literature wrote Burke's orations or 
Coleridge's "Aids to Reflection." 

The Greek of the Apostle Paul is not the same in 
kind with that of this writer. It is ordinarily less 
even and sustained, and more broken, tumultuous, and 
eager ; yet at times it rises higher, and attains unex- 
ampled tenderness and beauty, as in i Cor. 13, which 
is an exquisite poem, a lyric of love to God and man. 
It has been said that the Greek of the apostle is not 
his own, but that of an amanuensis, who translated his 
thought into Greek ; but a little consideration will 
show that this supposition is erroneous. He must have 
employed various amanuenses, as his epistles were writ- 
ten at intervals through many years and at many dif- 
ferent places. But his style, though bearing marks here 
of haste and there of leisure, or here of mid-life and 
there of advancing years, is always that of the Apostle 



XIV INTRODUCTORY 

Paul. This could not have been the case had his 
many different amanuenses been also his translators ; 
each one would have given us his own peculiar style. 

Furthermore, this apostle on several occasions quotes 
from minor Greek poets (Acts 17 : 28 ; Titus 1:12). A 
writer familiar with the minor poets of a people is not 
ignorant of the major ; if he has mastered his Cowper 
and his Burns, so as to have them at hand for ready 
use in extemporaneous speech, he has not neglected his 
Milton and his Shakespeare. 

The words which Paul quotes in his address at Athens 
he attributes to " certain of the Greek poets " ; he uses 
the plural, and thus shows that he has read them in two 
authors, Aratus and Cleanthes. 

Yet again ; in this addresss he follows in a striking 
manner the order of thought which he found in Aratus ; 
the poet says : 

Zeus fills the haunts of men, 
The streets, the marts ; Zeus fills the seas, the shores, 
The harbors ; everywhere our need is Zeus. 
We also are his offspring. 

The apostle says : 

In him we live and move and have our being ; as certain 
even of your own poets have said, For we also are his off- 
spring. 

Both place the thought of our own life in God imme- 
diately before that of his paternal relation in us. 

To say that the apostle picked up the words of 
Aratus and Cleanthes in the street, where they were a 
commonplace phrase, that he used the plural instead 
of the singular only by accident, and that he followed 



INTRODUCTORY XV 

the sequence of thought found in Aratus without being 
aware of it, is to resort to such desperate measures as 
amount to a confession of error. 

Again. The Apostle Paul knew that he was ap- 
pointed by God to carry the gospel to the Gentiles, 
and it is incredible that he should not wish to become 
acquainted with Gentile modes of thought and speech, 
so as to be prepared the better to accomplish his min- 
istry. The missionary to any people does not consider 
himself adequately equipped for his office till he has 
learned as much as possible of their books ; and since 
such a study is the dictate of ordinary common sense 
we ought not to suppose that it was neglected by the 
apostle who was emphatically "a wise master-builder." 

Lastly. He had abundant opportunity. He was 
born in a Greek-speaking city, and spent his early boy- 
hood there. His father had lived long enough in the 
Gentile world to acquire Roman citizenship. Thus 
Greek was his native tongue. It is true that he went 
to Jerusalem early ; but he returned to Tarsus after 
his conversion, and passed years in it before his severer 
labors began. Thus Godet writes 1 : 

It has often been denied that the quotations from Greek poets 
which are to be found in St. Paul's writings are proofs of his 
having had a certain degree of Greek culture ; and to sup- 
port this denial it has been asserted that he was too young 
when brought to Jerusalem, and there educated, to have previ- 
ously imbibed the elements of profane literature. But those 
who maintain this view forget this sojourn of Paul at Tarsus, 
when he must at least have been considerably over thirty, since 
before the age of thirty he would hardly have been sent on a 
mission to Damascus as delegate of the Sanhedrin. During the 

1 " Studies on the Epistles," p. 4. 



XVI INTRODUCTORY 

few years which he now spent with his relatives, waiting until 
God should call him to his work among the Gentiles, he had 
time to acquire a good knowledge of their literature, and no 
doubt tried to do so, in order to be more fit for the work which 
lay before him. The literary resources of his native town, at 
that time a rival of Athens and Alexandria, would therefore, 
no doubt be made use of by him as far as this was possible for 
a Jew. 

At least six, 1 and perhaps eight years elapsed between 
the conversion of Saul of Tarsus and his call to An- 
tioch by Barnabas, when the vast activities of his min- 
istry to the Gentiles began. The interval must have 
been one of preparation. 

These arguments are sufficient, in the absence of 
counter evidence, and henceforth the burden of proof is 
on the other side. Is there any evidence that the apos- 
tle was not acquainted with Greek literature ? There is 
none whatever. If there is none, then his skill as a 
writer of Greek, his quotations from Greek poets, his 
birth of Greek-speaking parents and in a Greek city, his 
abundant opportunities to study the works of the great 
Greek authors, his call by God to preach to the Gen- 
tiles in Greek, his amazing activity of mind and body, 
his scrupulous care to take every advantage of circum- 
stances in presenting the Cross to the Gentile world ; 
all these things join to render it impossible to doubt 
that he was well acquainted with Greek literature. It 
is not necessary to say, however, as some have done on 
these grounds, that he was a master of Greek literature, 
a specialist, an expert. 

In order to save space I have merely referred to the 



See the chronological table in Farrar's " St. Paul," Vol. II., p. 624. 



INTRODUCTORY XV11 

longer passages of Scripture which I have discussed, 
and have not produced them in full, and it will be neces- 
sary at times for the reader to turn to these in his 
Bible and examine them in the light of their context, 
that he may weigh my argument intelligently. 

It will be rightly inferred that my plan does not em- 
brace the discussion of all the quotations, but only of 
those with which some difficulty has been found. I think 
I have omitted none that have been called in question 
by any recent scholarly writer with whose work I am 
acquainted. I have paid special attention to the criti- 
cisms of Kuenen in his " Prophets and Prophecy in 
Israel," because they are the boldest and the ablest 
expression of negative criticism on this subject. I have 
also kept in view the works of Dopke and Toy. 

So far as I am aware, this is the first attempt ever 
made to compare the quotations of the New Testament 
from the Old with those of general literature. I have 
no doubt that, laboring in a field so vast and so wholly 
untrodden, I may have erred in certain minor details of 
my work. But I think that my main conclusions will 
not be disproved, for I have sought to render my cita- 
tions from ancient and modern literature so abundant 
that no one can call in question the chief statements 
which they support. I have also sought to make them 
so clear that any person may verify them for himself. 
I have kept before my mind the wants of the reader 
acquainted only with English, and have avoided, as far 
as possible, technicalities which he could not appreci- 
ate or weigh. I have used throughout my work the 
Revised version of the Bible, except where I have said 
that I cite from some other .version. In a few in- 



XVlii INTRODUCTORY 

stances I have followed the American revisers where 
they differ from the English. 

In quoting from the Greek and Latin writers, I have 
availed myself of approved translations wherever I 
could, and I hope that this general acknowledgment 
of my indebtedness will be deemed sufficient, and that 
thus I shall be freed from the necessity of encumbering 
my pages with a multitude of footnotes of no value to 
the reader. I have compared the translation with the 
original in almost every case, that there might be no 
doubt of its substantial accuracy. I have drawn spe- 
cially from Bryant's " Homer," Jowett's " Plato," and 
Goodwin's "Plutarch." 

I have thought of two methods of treating the dif- 
ficulties which I have stated. One would be to take 
up the quotations as they occur in the New Testament 
and weigh in turn the objections brought against each. 
This would possess the advantage of a well-recognized 
order in the succession of the books and chapters and 
verses. But inasmuch as the same objection is often 
made to a score of the quotations, it would have to be 
presented and discussed many times, and the repeti- 
tion would be wearisome. Moreover, as the reader will 
perceive on advancing farther in this study, the dis- 
cussion of each objection is so voluminous that it can- 
not be given more than once. I have chosen, therefore, 
a second method, and shall discuss the difficulties in 
turn, and shall take up the quotations as they are 
brought forward by certain critics to illustrate these 
difficulties. This method, however, is subject to a 
serious disadvantage. It frequently occurs that sev- 
eral difficulties are found with one and the same quota- 



INTRODUCTORY XIX 

tion, and hence it becomes necessary to consider the 
passage in several different chapters, so that the entire 
discussion of it can be followed only by turning to 
several places. I have endeavored to modify this dis- 
advantage, as far as possible, by abundant cross refer- 
ences. 

For invaluable assistance in the preparation of this 
book I am indebted to my wife, and to my son, Frank- 
lin Johnson, Jr. 

Franklin Johnson. 

University of Chicago, October, 1895. 



THE QUOTATIONS 

OF THE 

NEW TESTAMENT FROM THE OLD 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 

THE quotations of the New Testament from the Old 
are not usually exact translations of the Hebrew ; 
the majority of them are drawn from the Greek version 
called the Septuagint, and follow this where it agrees with 
the original, and also where it departs from it. Less 
frequently they adhere to the Hebrew and abandon the 
Septuagint. In some instances, finally, they abandon 
both as far as mere language is concerned. Some of 
the quotations belong in part to one of these classes, 
and in part to another or to others. The proportion 
of quotations from the Septuagint is stated thus by 
Kuenen, 1 whose argument I am about to consider : 

A German scholar, who has subjected the whole of the cita- 
tions in the epistles of Paul to a very exact examination, comes 
to the conclusion that an unacquaintance with the Septuagint is 
shown in only two of the eighty-four, while of the remaining 
eighty-two there are only twelve which vary essentially from 
this translation. Another, whose book is itself a continuous 

1 " Prophets and Prophecy in Israel," p. 455. 



2 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

proof that he would gladly give a different testimony, begins by 
acknowledging that "the Old Testament quotations are for the 
most part either borrowed word for word from the Septuagint, or 
at least agree with that translation. The passages from the 
Hebrew text form a minority which is hardly worth noticing." 

Turpie, 1 on careful examination, finds that the writers 
of the New Testament, even when they have quoted in 
a general way from the Septuagint version, have de- 
parted from it somewhat in thirty-six per cent, of their 
quotations, have altered it to a less accordance with the 
Hebrew in nearly twenty-eight per cent., and to a closer 
accordance in nearly four per cent., and have kept it 
unaltered in not quite thirty-three per cent. The ma- 
jority of these variations are the result of memory- 
quoting, and will be accounted for in our next chapter ; 
at present we have to consider only the fact that the 
Septuagint was used by the writers of the New Testa- 
ment as the basis of their quotations. 

The first of all the arguments adduced by Kuenen 
to prove that the writers of the New Testament mis- 
take in their exegesis of the Old, is drawn from this 
prevalent use of the Septuagint, and I shall permit 
him to state it here in his own way : 

If now the Greek translation were an accurate reproduction of 
the original, or if, where it varies, it followed a better text than 
that which has been preserved to us in the manuscripts and edi- 
tions, this use of it would be nothing surprising, or would even 
testify to the accuracy of the New Testament writers. But the 
contrary is true. In the two hundred and seventy-five passages 
of the New Testament which contain citations from the Old, of 
course only a comparatively small part of the Old occurs. Yet 

1 " The Old Testament in the New." 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 3 

we notice more than one divergence of the Septuagint from the 
original, which either is of very doubtful value or merits distinct 
disapproval, whether it be that the translator had an incorrect 
text before him, or that he did not understand his original, and 
therefore gave a wrong rendering of it. 

The rest of the argument consists of examples to 
show that the faults of the Septuagint are not always 
amended when the writers of the New Testament quote 
it, but are often transferred to their pages without no- 
tice. I admit this, and hence need not reproduce the 
proofs which Kuenen has collected. 

In only a few instances, however, does Kuenen claim 
that the New Testament writers have gained any ad- 
vantage in argument by quoting the inexact translation 
of the Septuagint, instead of making an exact transla- 
tion for themselves ; and in all these examples he is 
mistaken, as I shall now show. 

One is the quotation of Isa. 59 : 20, 21 and 27 : 
9, in Rom. 11 : 26, 2J. 



Isa. 59 : 20, 21. 

A redeemer shall come to 
Zion, and unto them that 
turn from trangression in 
Jacob, saith the Lord. And 
as for me, this is my cov- 
enant with them. 

Isa. 27 : 9. 

By this shall the iniquity 
of Jacob be purged, and this 
is all the fruit of taking 
away his sin. 



Rom. 11 : 26, 27. 

There shall come out of 
Zion the Deliverer ; 

He shall turn away ungod- 
liness from Jacob : 

And this is my covenant 
unto them, 

When I shall take away 
their sins. 



The quotation in the epistle is thus composite, being 



4 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

formed of two different passages from the prophet. 
The ancient custom of quoting in this manner will be 
considered in our fifth chapter. 

There are three marked changes in the quotation : 
First, the prophet says "a redeemer shall come to 
Zion " ; while the apostle quotes him as saying " out 
of Zion." However, even Kuenen does not complain 
of this, and Toy writes : " No additional Messianic 
sense is gained by the alteration." I pass it by, 
therefore, as of no significance. 

This first change, which is confessedly without sig- 
nificance, is made by the apostle himself. The second 
is made by the Septuagint, and is accepted by the 
apostle because it does not affect his argument in any 
way. The prophet says the " deliverer shall come to 
them that turn from transgression," but the Septua- 
gint, followed by the apostle, " he shall turn away un- 
godliness from " the people. That the change does not 
affect the argument of the apostle will be apparent if 
we state the argument and then look back at the orig- 
inal passage. The argument is that " all Israel shall be 
saved," or in other words, that the Jews in general shall 
turn from sin and accept the Messiah as their Re- 
deemer. This is also the teaching of the prophet in 
the text quoted and in the context. Going back 
to the eighteenth verse of the chapter quoted from, 
we find a prediction of judgments: "According to 
their deeds, accordingly he will repay, fury to his ad- 
versaries, recompense to his enemies ; to the islands he 
will repay recompense." In the next verse the result 
of this interposition of God is portrayed ; it is a gen- 
eral turning of the world to the true God : " And they 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 5 

shall fear the name of Jehovah from the west, and his 
glory from the rising of the sun. When the enemy 
shall come in like a flood, the spirit of Jehovah shall 
drive him away." That this prediction refers to the com- 
ing of the world to Jehovah is held by interpreters in 
general, among whom I may mention Cheyne, Hender- 
son, Alexander, Knobel, and Delitzsch, the last of 
whom paraphrases it as follows : " In all quarters of the 
globe will fear of the name and of the glory of Jeho- 
vah become naturalized among the nations of the 
world." Therefore the prophet is looking forward into 
the Messianic age. Then follows the promise quoted by 
the New Testament writer : " A redeemer shall come 
to Zion, and unto them that turn from transgression in 
Jacob." That those who " turn from transgression in 
Jacob" are the Jewish people in general, and not a 
small remnant, is evident from the preceding verse, 
which foretells the conversion of the world. There- 
fore the change made by the Septuagint and not cor- 
rected by the apostle renders the passage neither more 
nor less a prophecy of the gathering of the Jews into 
the church ; and it is as such alone that he uses it. 

Kuenen lays greater stress on the third change ; for 
the apostle cites from the Septuagint its free version 
of the second passage, as of the first. But, just as the 
first of the two prophecies of which the quotation is 
composed proclaims the coming of the Deliverer to 
Israel in general, as really in the Hebrew form as in the 
Greek, so the second proclaims the purging of sin from 
Israel in general, as really in the Hebrew form as in 
the Greek. Let us examine it also in the light of its 
context. Beginning at the sixth verse, we see that the 



6 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

time to which the prophecy looks is the Messianic age : 
" In the days to come shall Jacob take root, Israel shall 
blossom and bud ; and they shall fill the face of the 
world with fruit." That this refers to the world at 
large, and not merely to the Holy Land, is held 
by such interpreters as Cheyne, Bredenkamp, and 
Delitzsch ; the last of whom writes : " The prophet 
here says, in a figure, the same that the apostle says in 
Romans n : 12, that Israel, when restored once more 
to favor as a nation, will become ' the riches of the 
Gentiles.' " In the seventh and eighth verses God de- 
clares that he will afflict Israel, though not beyond 
measure. In the ninth verse he depicts the effect of 
the affliction. 1 " Therefore, by this shall the iniquity 
of Jacob be purged ; and this is all the fruit " of the 
affliction, " to take away his sins." The removal of 
the sins of Israel in the Messianic age is thus asserted 
as strongly by the original Hebrew as by the Septuagint 
version which the apostle quotes. Here again, the 
change which he adopts from the Septuagint gives him 
no advantage whatever, except possibly that of a brief 
statement of the purport of the entire prophecy. 

Let us sum up the results of our discussion of this 
quotation. The changes to which Kuenen objects 
were found by the New Testament writer in the Sep- 
tuagint version, and he did not go out of his way to 
correct them, because they did not at all concern the 
movement of his argument, nor alter the essential 
meaning of the prophecies to which he appealed. 

It is fair always to ask what it is that a writer seeks 

1 So Alexander, Hitzig Henderson, Knobel. 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 7 

to prove or to illustrate by a quotation, before we pro- 
nounce him guilty of unfaithfulness in retaining in it 
some imperfection of the version to which he appeals. 
If this rule were observed, the difficulties which have 
been found with Heb. 2 : 6-8, would vanish at once. 
The writer of this epistle is proving the lofty nature of 
man, and quotes from the Septuagint version of Ps. 8 : 5 
for the purpose : " Thou madest him a little lower than 
the angels." Many critics tell us that the Hebrew word 
here rendered " angels," means God; and others regard 
themselves as bound to show that it means angels, or 
to abandon the doctrine of plenary inspiration. The 
contest over the passage has been persistent, writers of 
one school maintaining that it proves the author of the 
epistle to have been ignorant or careless of the He- 
brew, and not inspired, and writers of another school 
maintaining the accuracy of the translation which he 
adopts. " Unless it had so signified," says Turpie, 1 
" it would not have been found in the inspired writings 
of the New Testament translated by such a word." 
The whole controversy is idle, for the New Testament 
writer gains nothing by the substitution of the word 
angels for the word God, if that is indeed the meaning 
of the Hebrew word. Were the case reversed, had 
the Hebrew said angels, and had the New Testament 
writer quoted it as saying God, this would have been to 
secure an unfair advantage for his assertion of the 
lofty nature of man. It might be maintained, indeed, 
that he loses a certain force of proof by adopting the 
Septuagint statement, which lifts man near to the 

1 " The Old Testament in the New," p. nq. 



8 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

angels, instead of the Hebrew, which perhaps lifts him 
near to the Godhead ; but it is evident that he con- 
siders the more moderate declaration of the Septua- 
gint as strong enough for his purpose. His argument 
would be exactly the same, whether he quoted the 
psalmist as saying God, or as saying angels ; for in 
either case he would prove the very lofty nature of 
man, which is all that he wishes to do. 

In carrying his argument to its conclusion, it still 
remains adequate to his purpose to write " angels," 
with the Septuagint, instead of " God," with the He- 
brew, if that is the meaning of the Hebrew word. 
His course of thought is this : Man was made origi- 
nally " a little lower than the angels," or than " God " ; 
he was " crowned with glory and honor " ; he was " set 
over the works" of nature ; and " all things were put 
in subjection under him." Such were his constitution 
and his earthly lot by the divine appointment at his 
creation. That the psalm here quoted refers to the 
original state of man, and not to his present degrada- 
tion in sin, is held by such interpreters as Dean John- 
son in the " Speaker's Commentary," Toy, in his 
" Quotations," and Delitzsch. The last great critic calls 
it "a lyric echo of the Mosaic account of the creation," 
and adds : " The poet regards man in the light of the 
purpose for which he was created." This purpose, 
however, man does not now fulfill ; the position for 
which he was formed he does not occupy ; he has 
fallen far below the magnificent inheritance provided 
for him. But the intention of God in the creation of 
man is fulfilled in Jesus, the Son of Man, the ideal 
Man, the Head of humanity. As a man, he was made 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 9 

"a little lower than the angels"; 1 or, if one prefers, 
"than God," since he himself testified, " My Father is 
greater than I." 2 Thus the argument is perfect, no 

1 In our Common version of Heb. I : 6, we read : " And again, when 
he bringeth in the first-begotten into the world, he saith, And let all the 
angels of God worship him." There is no discrepancy between that pas- 
sage and the one before us. That sees Christ in his concrete personality ; 
this in his human nature. Moreover, that passage, according to the best 
interpreters, must be referred either to his resurrection or to his second 
coming, and hence to his glorification, for the sentence must be rendered, 
not, " And again, when he bringeth," but, as in the Revised version, 
" When he again bringeth," when he a second time bringeth, " his first- 
born into the world"; and moreover, the Greek word rendered "bring- 
eth " is in a future tense, and in the margin of the Revised version is ren- 
dered " shall have brought." 

2 The interpretation of the passage up to this point is universally ac- 
cepted. From this point on, however, interpreters differ. The difference 
does not concern my argument, which relates only to the earlier part of 
the text. Yet I may say that 1 hold the view of Stuart and Hofmann. 
The incarnation, though it was the humiliation of the Son of God, may be 
considered as the exal.ation of the son of Mary, the bringing into being of 
a human nature of the highest possible type, but confined, as we are, to 
the body and exposed to want and pain and mortality. In this sense 
Christ was " made a little lower than the angels " " because of the suffer- 
ing of death ' ' to which man is doomed for his sin ; he was " crowned with 
glory and honor" and "all things were put in subjection under him," 
" that by the grace of God he should taste death for every man." That 
is, he was made man because we are exposed to physical and spiritual 
death ; he was made man that he might die for us. But he was not made 
sinful and degraded man ; he was made as man was made in the begin- 
ning, but "little lower than the angels," or "than God," and "crowned 
with such glory and honor" as the first man possessed before his sin. 
The Gospels give us abundant evidence on every page that he had do- 
minion over nature during his earthly ministry, so that there is no need to 
refer the passage to his present state of exaltation. This interpretation 
seems to me the only one grounded in a simple and grammatical reading 
of the text and context. By him we are to attain our lofty nature and 
destiny: God is to " bring many sons unto glory" through the "author 
of their salvation " ; for now, since the incarnation of Jesus, " he that 
sanctifieth and they that are sanctified are all of one" common. human 



IO QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

matter which of the two meanings is adopted. It is 
worthy of further observation that the great majority 
of commentators, theologians, and preachers, though 
they may not agree as to its interpretation, find it suffi- 
cient as it stands, and feel no need of the substitution 
of the word "God" for the word "angels." 

Another illustration of the equal value to the argu- 
ment of the Septuagint translation and of the Hebrew 
original, though it is possible that they differ slightly 
in sense, is found in Heb. I : 7, where the writer 
quotes from Ps. 104 : 4 : 

Who maketh his angels winds, 
And his ministers a flame of fire. 

The quotation follows the Septuagint almost exactly. 
It is said by many that the passage in the Hebrew, 
interpreted in the light of its context, presents a dif- 
ferent thought, which would require in English a dif- 
ferent order of the words : 

Who maketh winds his messengers 
And flaming fire his ministers. 

It is claimed, that is, that in the Hebrew God is said 
to make winds and flames obey him and accomplish his 
purposes as his angels do, while in the Septuagint he 
is said to make the angels obey him and accomplish his 
purposes as the winds and flames do. This view of 
the Hebrew is admitted to be very doubtful ; ' but for- 

nature. Delitzsch differs widely from Hofmann concerning this passage, yet 
expresses great admiration of his labors in elucidating it. Zimmer criti- 
cizes the exegesis of Hofmann in his " Exegetische Probleme," and yet 
cannot help praising it. His objections lead me to a higher estimate of it. 
1 Against it are Ellicott and Alford. 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION II 

tunately we need not discuss it ; we need only consider 
what it is the writer of the epistle here teaches, in 
order to perceive that the evidence is perfect in either 
case. His statement is that the Son of God is supe- 
rior to the angels. His proof is that God institutes a 
comparison between the angels and the winds and 
flames, while he never compares his Son to such inani- 
mate forces, but speaks of him as divine, saying, "Thy 
throne, O God, is for ever and ever." Our conception 
of Christ would be very different had God instituted a 
comparison between him and the inanimate forces of 
nature, and had said, 

He maketh the winds his Son 
And a flame of lire his first-born ; 
Or, 

He maketh his Son a wind 

And his first-born a flame of fire. 

Some of the foremost biblical critics 1 find in this 
passage of the Old Testament a proof that its writer 
held the winds and flames to be a sort of drapery or 
real embodiment of the angels, and the angels to be the 
moving spirits of these their corporeal abodes ! One 
would think that these men were not accustomed to 
poetry. The fact which underlies the comparison — 
for we have only a comparison here — is the ministerial 
office alike of the angels and of the winds and flames, 
while Christ is Lord of all. This is the argument. 
Hence the sacred writer does not need to enter into 
any minute and teasing discussion of the Hebrew, or 
to depart from the only Bible accessible to his readers, 

1 As Gesenius. 



12 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

since the poetic comparison between the angels and 
the inanimate forces of nature is perfectly clear, which- 
ever view of the Hebrew is taken. 

It is objected, again, that the Hebrew says nothing 
about angels, but speaks only of " messengers " in a 
general sense, so that the writer has gotten from the Sep- 
tuagint a proof which he could not have found in the 
original. The same Hebrew word means messenger 
and angel, just as the same Greek word means both. 
The angels are the special messengers of God, and 
hence they are designated by this convenient term. It 
is therefore mere assertion that in the passage before 
us the original writer meant messengers in general, 
and not angels. The assertion is not sustained by a 
particle of proof of any sort. On the contrary, there 
is no passage in the Old Testament, unless this is an 
exception to an otherwise universal rule, in which the 
word is used of purely inanimate forces ; it always re- 
fers to an intelligent being, either celestial or terres- 
trial. That the word signifies angels in this place is 
understood by the two greatest Hebrew lexicographers, 
Gesenius and Fiirst, and by the vast majority of com- 
petent Hebrew critics. 

Another example adduced by Kuenen is the quota- 
tion of Isa. 29 : 13, made by our Lord, and recorded 
in Matt. 1 5 : 8, 9 and Mark 7 : 6, y. The prophet 
wrote : " The Lord said, Forasmuch as this people draw 
nigh unto me, and with their mouth and with their lips 
do honor me, but have removed their heart far from 
me, and their fear of me is a commandment of men 
which hath been taught them." The Pharisees criti- 
cised the disciples for " transgressing the tradition of 



THE SEPTUAGIXT VERSION 1 3 

the elders " in neglecting to " wash their hands when 
they ate bread." Their Master answered the critics, 
telling them that they placed their tradition above 
"the commandment of God," and set aside the latter 
to observe the former. He gave them an example of 
their breach of the divine law by means of their tradi- 
tion, citing the well-known case of the "corban." 
Then he quoted Isaiah's condemnation of those who 
worship with the lips only, and not with the heart, and 
render a service which is merely " a commandment of 
men," and not such as God himself requires. Nothing 
could be more appropriate than this passage. 

Nor is it either more or less appropriate in its Sep- 
tuagint form, which the evangelists adopt, with a 
slight change, as follows : 

This people honoreth me with their lips ; 

But their heart is far from me. 

But in vain do they worship me, 

Teaching as their doctrines the precepts of men. 

Our Lord says truly that in these words Isaiah 
prophesied of the Pharisees to whom he quotes them. 
Isaiah prophesied to the Jews of his own time ; but, as 
the Scriptures are for all men of all ages and all 
places, he also prophesied of all those who at any time 
bring to God an external worship, and put human pre- 
cepts in the room of the divine. This is no accommo- 
dation of the prophecy ; since it inheres in the very 
nature of prophecy, which is an expression of the will 
of the unchanging Deity, that its underlying principles 
shall be of universal and perpetual application. 

The Septuagint differs a little both from the He- 

B 



14 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

brew and from the form of the passage used by the 
evangelists. It has : 

But in vain do they worship me, 
Teaching precepts of men, and teachings. 

This sentence the evangelists slightly alter, in order 
to express the real meaning of the prophet. Thus 
Broadus writes : 

Matthew and Mark have slightly modified the Septuagint into 
"teaching teachings (which are) precepts of men." This not 
only improves the phraseology of the Septuagint, but brings out 
the prophet's thought more clearly than would be done by a 
literal translation of the Hebrew, for Isaiah means to distinguish 
between a worship of God that is taught by men, and that which 
is according to the teaching of God's word. 

Such verbal changes to develop the sense more clearly 
are considered in our fourth chapter. 

Yet another example adduced by Kuenen is Amos 
9:11, 12, as quoted by James in Acts 15 : 16, 17. 
The prophet predicts the raising up of the " tabernacle 
of David," " as in the days of old," "that they may 
possess the remnant of Edom, and all the nations, 
which are called by my name, saith the Lord that doeth 
this." Instead of "the remnant of Edom," the Sep- 
tuagint and James have "the residue of men." This 
is the change criticised by Kuenen, on the ground that 
it favors unduly the thesis of James, who wished to 
show that the gospel was designed for the Gentiles, 
and not for the Jews only. It does not do this, how- 
ever, for, in any case, the very next phrase of the quo- 
tation is sufficiently sweeping and emphatic : 

And all the Gentiles, upon whom my name is called. 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 1 5 

Whether "the residue of Edom, and all the nations," 
or "the residue of men, and all the nations," are to be 
brought into the kingdom of David, surely makes no 
difference. Kuenen would limit arbitrarily the expres- 
sion, " all the nations upon whom the name of the Lord 
is called," to the peoples immediately around Palestine, 
whom Jehovah was to conquer by means of Jewish 
armies. Toy takes a somewhat similar view, but goes 
farther in the right direction, and says well, that the 
prediction, though it related " immediately to the res- 
toration of the political fortunes of Judah, and in this 
sense was never fulfilled, doubtless involved in the 
prophetic feeling the establishment among the nations 
of the true worship of the one true God, and so found 
its realization in the spread of Christianity over the 
world." But let us take the passage with the limita- 
tions of its scope which Kuenen prescribes. Even 
thus, it will teach what James found in it, the truth 
that the kingdom of God shall not be confined to the 
Jews under the reign of the " Son of David," but 
shall break through its ancient walls, and be extended 
over the Gentiles around the Holy Land. The posi- 
tion taken by James was not that the kingdom of the 
Messiah was destined to become strictly universal, but 
that it was destined to throw down the barriers of the 
one people and embrace other peoples as well. This 
was all he needed to prove ; for no Jew who admitted 
this truth would care to dispute the question of strict 
universality. I shall close my discussion of this pas- 
sage with a single sentence from Hackett : " The cita- 
tion from Amos was pertinent in a twofold way : first, 
it announced that the heathen were to be admitted 



1 6 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

with the Jews into the kingdom of Christ ; and sec- 
ondly, it contained no recognition of circumcision, or 
other Jewish ceremonies, as prerequisite to their recep- 
tion." 

Still another instance brought forward by Kuenen is 
the quotation of Gen. 12:3, and perhaps 22 : 18, in 
Gal. 3 : 8. The promise to Abraham, according to this 
critic, was that all peoples of the earth should bless 
themselves or each other by making use of his name, 
as one might say : " May I be or may you be as fortu- 
nate as Abraham was." " It was understood differ- 
ently," the critic adds, "by the Greek translator, who 
renders it thus : ' In thee shall all the people of the earth 
be blessed.' The Apostle Paul adopted this interpreta- 
tion from him, and thus naturalized it in the Christian 
world." 

The apostle combined in his quotation the essence of 
two promises made to Abraham, according to the lit- 
erary custom illustrated in our fifth chapter. It is 
admitted by all that the meaning of the two is the 
same. The only question is whether the interpretation 
given by Kuenen, or that given by the apostle, is the 
correct one. The great majority of Hebrew scholars 
sustain the latter, among whom are Keil, Cook, Lange, 
and Delitzsch. 

The question is not one of mere grammar, but of the 
meaning of the promise It is freely admitted that the 
sentence in the Hebrew text is reflexive, and may be 
translated literally : " In thee shall all nations bless 
themselves." But the meaning will then be, as De- 
litzsch says : They shall wish themselves blessed as 
Abraham was, and by the same means by which he 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 1 7 

secured his blessing, that is, by faith. And thus desir- 
ing the blessing of faith, they shall obtain it. To limit 
the reference of the promise to a mere glib proverb, is 
to belittle both it and the God who gave it. The na- 
tions were to bless themselves in Abraham not only in 
word, but also in deed. Thus the Septuagint, adopted 
by the New Testament writer, expresses the real 
thought of the Hebrew text. 

Again. In Heb, 12 : 5-13, the sacred writer exhorts 
his readers not to be discouraged by sufferings, which, 
he reminds them, are evidences that God deals with 
them as with sons, and hence of their divine sonship. 
To prove this proposition, he quotes from Prov. 3 : 
11, 12 : 

My son, regard not lightly the chastening of the Lord, 
Nor faint when thou art reproved of him ; 
For whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, 
And scourgeth every son whom he receiveth. 

This is from the Septuagint. In the Hebrew the last 
line is as follows : 

Even as a father the son in whom he delighteth. 

On account of this difference Kuenen complains that 
the quotation is taken from the Septuagint instead of 
the Hebrew. But it is evident at a glance that the 
proposition of the writer is proved by the passage in 
either form, and in one form just as cogently as in the 
other ; so that not the slightest advantage to the argu- 
ment is either gained or lost by the use of the Septua- 
gint version. 

But, granting that the faults of the Septuagint, in 



1 8 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

the passages quoted, do not affect in any way the argu- 
ment of the New Testament writers, were they not 
bound, nevertheless, to correct these departures from 
the Hebrew original, or to translate directly from it ? 
Why quote from versions in the least degree imper- 
fect ? Kuenen insists that it was wrong for them to 
do so. The objection, however perplexing at first, loses 
its force at once when brought into the court of gen- 
eral literature. The writers of the New Testament 
quoted from the Septuagint because it was the only 
written version of their time. The Jews in general 
had long ceased, not merely to speak and write, but also 
to read Hebrew ; even to the majority of those who 
lived in Palestine it was a dead language ; and it was 
necessary for them to " search the Scriptures," if at all, 
in some translation with which they were acquainted. 
The learned Jews read Hebrew ; but that they had lost 
all minute and critical knowledge of it is evident from 
the puerile interpretations of the rabbis and from the 
numerous errors of the Septuagint version, completed 
two centuries before the apostolic age. At the same 
time, this Septuagint version, being the sole version 
which they possessed in writing, was a work of the very 
first importance. It was necessary for the apostles to 
appeal to it, since it contained the only documentary 
evidence to which the great mass of their readers could 
turn to verify the Christian argument from history and 
type and prophecy. 

The world of the apostolic age, even the Jewish 
world, stood much farther from the Hebrew Old Testa- 
ment than our modern world does, with its untiring 
microscopic criticism and its wealth of commentaries 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 19 

distributed to every Christian home and bringing the 
results of the ripest learning to every child in the 
Sunday-school and at its mother's knee. The world of 
the apostolic age was much more dependent upon the 
Septuagint, its one written version, and upon such oral 
versions as the rabbis might make in the synagogues, 
than we are upon our modern versions. 

The New Testament was not written for a limited 
number of learned men ; but for the great world, and 
for the churches gathered out of it, and thus for people 
of ordinary intelligence. In quoting from the Septua- 
gint, its writers did as all religious writers of all ages 
have done, in so far as they have addressed the people 
not technically learned ; they quoted from the version 
which their readers knew. The writer in English, what- 
ever his denomination, quotes by preference from the 
ordinary English version, or from the Revised, though 
neither is free from errors. The writer in German, 
however widely he may differ from the creed of Luther, 
quotes from the version of Luther, unless there is some 
special reason for an appeal to another. The writer in 
Burmese, even if an Episcopalian, quotes from the 
Burman version, the work of a Baptist missionary. 
This is the common law of religious literature. 

Thus the writers of the New Testament dealt with 
the inaccuracies of the common version of their time 
much as the conscientious theologian of to-day deals 
with those of the versions most accessible to the peo- 
ple. The theologian, in quoting from either of the well- 
known English versions, does not reject any text which 
he wishes to use because its language seems to him 
less exact than some other form of words, if the divine 



20 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

thought is preserved in its integrity. Nay further, 
when he finds in it some slight inaccuracy of meaning, 
if this has nothing to do with his argument, he takes 
the passage as it is, and refrains from adverse comment, 
lest he enfeeble his production by endless and unprof- 
itable digressions. If, however, the inaccuracy stands 
in his way, he removes it, and brings out the full light 
of the truth which it obscured or concealed ; and, on 
the other hand, if it is of a nature to favor his cause 
unduly, he refuses to avail himself of it, "not handling 
the word of God deceitfully." To quote from a version 
unknown to his readers and not trusted by them, or to 
overload his pages with perpetual teasing emendations 
of the version which he employs, would be foolish, as 
it would debar him from the world and render his work 
futile. So the writers of the New Testament, in citing 
from the Greek, seldom corrected the version to which 
they appealed, unless to do so was necessary to their 
course of thought ; and they refrained from using in- 
accuracies of which they might easily have taken ad- 
vantage. 

A good instance of the passing over of a verbal in- 
accuracy which might have been pressed into the ser- 
vice of the writer is found in Heb. 10 : 5-9 : 

When he cometh into the world, he saith, 

Sacrifice and offering thou wouldest not, 

But a body didst thou prepare for me ; 

In whole burnt offerings and sacrifices for sin thou 

hadst no pleasure : 
Then said I, Lo, I am come 
(In the roll of the book it is written of me) 
To do thy will, O God. 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 21 

Saying above, Sacrifices and offerings and whole burnt offerings 
and sacrifices for sin thou wouldest not, neither hadst pleasure 
therein (the which are offered according to the law), then hath 
he said, Lo, I am come to do thy will. He taketh away the first, 
that he may establish the second. 

The quotation is from Ps. 40 : 6-8. It has primary 
reference to the psalmist himself. Its secondary refer- 
ence to Christ will be shown in the ninth chapter of 
this book, and need not detain us here. That which I 
wish especially to observe is the phrase of the Hebrew 
text : "Mine ears hast thou opened," and the departure 
from it of the Septuagint, which reads : "A body didst 
thou prepare for me." The author of the epistle 
quotes from the Septuagint, but he makes no use of 
this phrase in his argument. Yet it is one that might 
have been employed with force. The writer might 
have exhibited the psalmist as predicting the prepara- 
tion of the body of Christ in the incarnation with ex- 
press reference to its sacrifice as a substitute for the 
sacrifices which God "would not." Indeed, many have 
leaped to the conclusion that he really bases his rea- 
soning upon it, so appropriate is it to his purpose. 
Thus Toy 1 says: "'This argument might have been 
made without the quotation, but a desirable support 
from the Old Testament seemed to the author to be 
presented in the Septuagint phrase ' a body thou hast 
prepared me.' " 

The impression, however, that the author of the 
epistle has rested his argument upon the phrase of 
the Septuagint is erroneous. It is true that a phrase 
at the first glance distantly resembling that of the 

1 " The Quotations in the New Testament." 



22 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Septuagint occurs a little farther along in the epistle : 
" By which will we have been sanctified through the 
offering of the body of Christ once for all." But that 
this is quite independent of the phrase quoted from the 
Septuagint is evident from the following considera- 
tions : 

i. The two phrases are not the same in any particu- 
lar except that both contain the word " body." The 
Septuagint has : " A body didst thou prepare for me " ; 
and the epistle : " By which will we have been sancti- 
fied through the offering of the body of Christ once 
for all." Could any two statements be more diverse? 

2. Not only are they different in form, but they are 
thoroughly different in meaning. The phrase of the 
Septuagint, were it genuine, would refer to the incar- 
nation ; but that of the epistle refers solely to the 
crucifixion. One looks to the birth of Christ, and the 
other to his death. It is true that this distance might 
have been bridged over by the writer of the epistle ; 
he might have said that the body of Christ was pre- 
pared with reference to its crucifixion, and thus have 
brought the expression into his argument. He has 
pointedly failed to do this, which shows that he did not 
regard the phrase in question as belonging in any way 
to his course of reasoning. 

3. We may not only prove thus that the phrase of 
the epistle cannot have come from the Septuagint ver- 
sion of the psalm, being thoroughly different from it 
both in form and meaning, but we may go farther and 
show whence it did come. Its source is not far to 
seek. It came from Christian history ; and nothing was 
more natural to a Christian writer of the apostolic age 



THE SEPTUAGIXT VERSION 23 

than to speak of the crucifixion of our Lord as " the 
offering of the body of Christ." 

4. The argument which the writer derives from the 
psalm closes before the introduction of the phrase in 
question. The argument is that the Mosaic sacrifices 
have been abolished by the self-sacrifice of Christ, in 
obeying the will of God and coming into the world to 
die. The only phrases of the psaim which the writer 
uses in drawing his conclusion are these : " Sacrifices 
and offerings thou wouldest not," and, " Lo, I am come 
to do thy will." The psalmist, says the writer, " taketh 
away the first, that he may establish the second." 
Here his argument ends. 

5. When the writer comes to the phrase in question 
he has passed from his direct argument from the psalm, 
to speak, not of the incarnation of Christ, but of our 
sanctification through his death. Christ says, " when 
he cometh into the world," " Lo, I am come to do thy 
will." But it was the will of God that he should die 
for us, and hence " by that will we have been sanctified 
through the offering of the body of Christ once for all." 

If we admit, for a moment, what I think incorrect, 
that in the phrase, " the offering of the body of Christ," 
we are to find a direct reference to the phrase, " a body 
didst thou prepare for me," it will be evident, even then, 
that the writer lays no stress upon the expression of 
the psalm, but gives emphasis only to the obedience of 
Christ, and regards that as the real substitute for the 
sacrifices of the old dispensation. This is granted by 
so free a critic as De YVette, ' who says : " Had the 

1 Quoted by Tholuck, " Kommentar," at Heb. 10 : 10. 



24 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Septuagint translated, < ears hast thou prepared me,' 
the entire sense " found in the passage by the New Tes- 
tament writer " would have remained," and in the words 
of the psalmist " the idea of the fulfillment of the di- 
vine will as the true atonement would always have lain 
preserved." 

It should be added that the underlying: sense of the 
phrase in the Septuagint is the same with that of the 
Hebrew phrase, though the language is so different. 
The Hebrew says : " Mine ears hast thou opened," that 
is, to hear the divine voice in an obedient spirit. The 
Septuagint says : "A body didst thou prepare for me," 
that is, as an organ by means of which I may obey the 
divine voice. Thus in both cases the obedience of 
Christ unto death is presented to the reader as the sub- 
stitute for the sacrifices of the Mosaic dispensation. 
This is maintained by all critics, of all schools. The 
writer of the epistle, therefore, might have employed 
the phrase of the Septuagint with some emphasis ; and 
his refusal to do so is an interesting evidence of his 
scrupulous care to keep within the bounds of propriety 
in his use of the Old Testament. 

In a number of instances, however, the writers of 
the New Testament show their knowledge of the He- 
brew text, and quote from it, if there is special occasion 
to do so. 

In the Gospel by Matthew the Hebrew is used, in- 
stead of the Septuagint, perhaps more frequently than 
elsewhere. Westcott, ' following Bleek, calls attention 
to the fact that when Matthew himself speaks and 

1 " Introduction to the Study of the Gospels," p. 229, note. 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 25 

refers to the fulfillment of prophecies, he leans to the 
Hebrew original ; while, when he represents others as 
speaking and quoting, he leans to the Septuagint ver- 
sion. Westcott infers from this that the apostle com- 
posed his Gospel of two kinds of material : first, of his 
own peculiar reminiscences and reflections, in which he 
quotes from the Hebrew, because familiar with it ; and 
secondly, of an oral statement of the life of Christ 
shaped by the earliest teachers of Christianity and 
taught to the Gentiles and the Greek-speaking Jews, in 
which the Septuagint was used, because it was the only 
Bible which the hearers possessed and to which they 
could appeal. This oral Gospel, according to the 
theory, the apostle, when he committed it to writing, 
respected too much to change. The speculation is 
interesting. 

I give here a few illustrative instances of recurrence 
to the Hebrew text for reasons which we can weigh 
and appreciate : 

At Matt. 2:15, Hosea 1 1 : 1 is quoted as a prophecy 
of Christ : " Out of Egypt did I call my son." The 
quotation follows the Hebrew exactly. The Septua- 
gint says : " Out of Egypt I called back his children " ; 
and the word "children," being plural, could not be ap- 
plied to Christ as an individual ; and thus the typical 
character of the verse is lost. 

At Matt. 8:17, the evangelist quotes from Isa. 53 : 
4 : " Himself took our infirmities and bare our dis- 
eases." The Septuagint has : " He bears our sins and 
suffers for us," which would seem to refer especially to 
the crucifixion. Translated literally, as in the margin of 
the Revised version, the Hebrew has : " He hath borne 

c 



26 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

our sicknesses and carried our sorrows." We see at 
once why the New Testament writer abandons the 
Septuagint and recurs to the Hebrew : he is speaking 
of miracles of healing, to which the Hebrew words 
directly refer, while the Septuagint version does not 
preserve the reference of the prophecy to sickness. 

At Matt. 12 : 18-21 we find a quotation from Isa. 
42 : 1-4, beginning with the lines : 

Behold, my servant whom I have chosen ; 
My beloved in whom my soul is well pleased. 

This is from one of the prophecies which refer to Christ 
directly. But the Septuagint gives an erroneous inter- 
pretation of the passage, rather than a translation, and 
wholly obscures the reference to Christ, and thus ren- 
ders the passage unsuitable for the purpose of the New 
Testament writer : 

Jacob is my servant ; I will lay hold on him : 
Israel is my chosen ; my soul has accepted him. 

At Luke 23 : 46 our Lord, when about to die, quotes 
a line of Ps. 3 1 15: 

Into thy hands I commend my spirit. 

The Septuagint has the future tense, " I will com- 
mit," which is not quite appropriate, since our Lord 
utters the words, not with reference to what he intends 
to do at some time more or less distant, but with refer- 
ence to his spiritual act at the moment of speaking. 
Hence Luke here abandons the Septuagint for the He- 
brew form of the sentence. 



THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 2*] 

The quotation of Zech. 12 : 10 at John 19 : 37 is 
another example. The evangelist is recording the 
piercing of the side of Jesus by the Roman soldier, and 
says : " Another scripture saith, They shall look on 
him whom they pierced." This is in every way appro- 
priate to the event. The Septuagint is exchanged 
for the Hebrew, because it contains no reference to 
the piercing: "They shall look to me because they 
mocked." 

At Rom. 9 : 17 the Apostle Paul speaks of the 
divine sovereignty, and to prove this doctrine quotes 
the words uttered by Jehovah to Pharaoh and recorded 
at Exod. 9 : 16: "For this very purpose did I raise 
thee up, that I might shew in thee my power, and that 
my name might be published abroad in all the earth." 
The apostle follows the Septuagint in a general way. 
But the Septuagint is more impersonal : " For this pur- 
pose hast thou been preserved," is a form of language 
which does not assert clearly the divine agency, and the 
apostle therefore abandons it for that of the Hebrew, 
which is personal. Moreover, the statement that God 
had "preserved" Pharaoh to show forth his power by 
means of him, would not illustrate his supreme sover- 
eignty quite so well as the statement that God had 
"raised him up " for this very purpose. There are thus 
two reasons for the preference shown by the apostle for 
the Hebrew in this part of his quotation. 

After a careful study of the New Testament in its 
relation to the Septuagint version of the Old, I can 
find no fault with these words of Tholuck : x 

1 "Kommentar zum Briefe an die Hebraer," Beilage I., p. 37. 



28 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

It is a remarkable fact that, although all the authors of the 
New Testament seem to have used the Septuagint translation, 
yet where that translation — at least as it lies before us 1 — wholly 
wanders away from the sense of the original, or becomes 
entirely destitute of meaning, they either resort to another trans- 
lation, or themselves translate the text independently. We do 
not recall a single place, either in the Gospels or in the epistles 
of Paul, where a text of the Old Testament, as to its essential 
contents, has been disguised by the use of the Septuagint 
version. 

1 Referring to the uncertainty of the text of the Septuagint version. 



II 

QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 

THE quotations in modern literature are usually, 
though not uniformly, fairly exact in language, as 
well as in thought. But the writers of the New Tes- 
tament seem often to quote from memory, and, while 
scrupulous to give the sense of the passage in so far 
as it affects their argument, they are not careful of the 
precise language. They sometimes depart from the 
subsidiary shades of thought in subordinate phrases, 
if these have nothing to do with their teaching. They 
sometimes exercise even greater freedom if the quota- 
tion is used merely for literary allusion or decoration. 

It should be observed, therefore, that verbal exact- 
ness in quoting is a habit only recently introduced in 
literature. It was impossible, in effect, before the in- 
vention of printing made books abundant and the con- 
struction of indexes and concordances rendered it easy 
to find any passage at will. It has prevailed especially 
since the invention of quotation marks, which seem to 
call attention to the very words, and even letters, and 
to certify their correctness. Yet even to-day it is far 
from universal ; and in the age of the apostles centu- 
ries were to elapse before it should be thought of by 
any one. Sanday * has well said : "The ancient writer 
had not a small compact reference Bible at his side, 

1 " The Gospels in the Second Century," p. 29. 

29 



30 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

but, when he wished to verify a reference, would have 
to take an unwieldy roll out of its case, and then would 
not find it divided into chapter and verse like our mod- 
ern books, but would have only the columns, and those 
perhaps not numbered, to guide him." It should be 
added that the Apostle Paul, at least, and perhaps 
others of the authors of the New Testament, often 
wrote during a journey, or in prison, where books were 
not easily procured. 

The writers of the Old Testament, whose inspired 
example would possess for the writers of the New the 
authority of a divine law, quoted with reference to the 
sense, and not the exact language. Thus, the Ten 
Commandments, as given in the twentieth chapter of 
Exodus, are declared to be a reproduction of that which 
God proclaimed on Sinai : " God spake all these words." 
The same claim is made for the Ten Commandments 
as given in the fifth chapter of Deuteronomy : " These 
words 1 Jehovah spake unto all your assembly, in the 

1 It should be stated that "^1, the Hebrew term here rendered " word," 
usually refers to the larger outlines of expression, and also to the ideas ex- 
pressed, rather than to each individual word. It is like the Greek Adyo? in 
this respect. We have no word in English exactly corresponding to it 
in meaning; but perhaps UTTERANCE is as nearly like it as any at our ser- 
vice. The Ten Commandments are always called the " ten words " in 
the Old Testament (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 4 : 13 ; 10 : 4) ; and never the 
Ten Commandments ; they are thus named because they are the ten utter- 
ances of God's will. Those passages which have been held by some theo- 
logians to teach the doctrine of verbal inspiration, like I Cor 2 : 13, can- 
not justly be cited in its favor, because the original terms in these passages 
which we translate " word " and " words " have this larger meaning, and 
do not refer to the exact phraseology. So when it is said, as in the place 
immediately before us, " these words Jehovah spake, and added no more," 
the reference is general, and not to the minute details of the language em- 
ployed. We might render the sentence : " These thing? Jehovah spake." 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 31 

mount, out of the midst of the fire, of the cloud, and 
of the thick darkness, with a great voice : and he added 
no more." The claim is well founded in both cases ; 
for, though these two editions of the law differ at cer- 
tain points very widely in language, the underlying 
sense is the same. This may be called the uniform 
rule of quotation in the Old Testament : compare 2 
Sam. 23 : 17 and 1 Chron. 11 : 19; 2 Sam. 5 : 19, 20 
and 1 Chron. 14 : 9-1 1 ; 1 Kings 9 : 3-9 and 2 Chron. 
7 : 12-22. 

If we turn to the apocryphal writings associated 
with the Old Testament we shall observe the same 
liberty in the citations from the canonical Hebrew 
Scriptures. There is more quoting in Baruch than in 
any other of these productions ; and here, as elsewhere, 
it is usually so free that perhaps it should be called an 
echo, rather than a reproduction, of the sacred authors. 
The book, Dr. Bissell 1 says, " is substantially made up 
of reminiscences more or less clear, or quotations more 
or less direct, from the various books of the canonical 
Scriptures, especially Jeremiah and Daniel, Nehemiah, 
Isaiah, and Deuteronomy. Compare Baruch 1 : 3-14 
with Jer. 26 : 32 ; Baruch 1 : 15-2 : 29 with Dan. 9 : 
7-19; Baruch 2 : 21 with Jer. 27 : 11, 12." The 
reader can judge, by these instances, the freedom with 
which the writer of the book quotes, and of which all 
the writers of the Apocrypha avail themselves in their 
use of the Old Testament. 

No one can represent better than Plato the most 

1 "The Apocrypha of the Old Testament," Vol. XV. of the Lange 
series. I assume, with the support of the great majority of critics, that 
Baruch was written before our era. 



32 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

careful literary habits of the classical Greek writers. 
His works are adorned with many quotations from the 
poets, and specially from Homer ; but, though usually 
exact, he is often not so ; and he is much more careful 
of the rhythm of the original than of the words. The 
following instances will be sufficient to illustrate his 
freedom : 

i. In the "Ion," section 538, he reproduces three 
lines of the " Iliad," XXIV., 80, but substitutes three 
words of his own for as many of the text, an average 
of one for each line. 1 



THE ORIGINAL. 

*H dh fAoXvftdaivrj ix&Xtj ic 

puoobv opouozv, 
tjts xar aypa'jXoco ftobz xi- 
paz i{ij3££Jau7a 

ip%STOLC 0)[JL7)GT7]GCV ill lydlJOl 

K^pa (pip oi) a a. 



THE QUOTATION. 

C H dk fioXoftdaivrj exiXq ic 

ftvaabv txaveu, 
yj zs xaz dypa'jAoco /3ooc xi- 

paz, ipp.sp.au7a 
ipyszac aoprjazyjOt just cydu- 

01 rJ t pa <pipouoa. 



2. In the " Ion," section 537, he quotes from the 
"Iliad," beginning at XXIII. , 335, the direction of 
Nestor to Antilochus how to drive in the chariot race, 
displacing two words of Homer by two of his own. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Aurbz ok xhvdrjvcu iu~/Jxzcp 

ivi b'uppip, 
-fjX in dptazspd zoccw dzdp 

zbv dshbv ittttov 
xivao.t bpoxlrjoaz,, elgau zi ol 

y)via yspaiv. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Khvd7jvac oi, (f rpi, xae abzbc. 

ibziozq) ivi d'appw 
rp stz dpccrzspd zoiev dzdp 

zbv ds&bv 7znov 
xivaai bfioxKfjGaq,, scgac zi ol 

rjvca yspaiv. 



Paley's Iliad, XXlV., 80, note. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 



33 



'£> vjacrrj os roc Itztzo^ dpta- 

zspb: iyyp>u(sd-/J7co, 



1 En vjaaji os roc 7tzzoc aoca- 
rspbz iyyocpKfdrjrco, 



cue du to: TZ/c^uLvq ys ooo.aai- ojz fir) zoc TttyfiVi} ys 6oaoo= 



zou dxpou IxeaOat 
x'jx'ao'j ~oa t To1o' Acdoo o' dke- 
aodac inaooeiv. 



zac axpov IxeaOm 
xuxAou TZOOjTOiO' Acdo'J o" d/J- 
acrOau sTZOJjpstv. 



3. In the "Ion," section 539, he quotes from the 
"Odyssey," XX., 351, the address of Melampus to the 
suitors, with three substitutions of words and the 
omission of a whole line. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

~' A dsdoc, xi xaxbv zoos ~da- 

yszs ; vjxzl usu uuscov 
slXbaza: xztpalai zs -pbaco-d 

zs vspds zs youva. 
Oificoyrj os oso-^s, osodxpyv- 

zac os rzapscar 
aupLOLZt o 1 sppdoazoi'. zolyot 

xaXak zs piaodaar 
etdcoAcov os Jtkeou rzpdO'jpov, 

TZAsrq os xal auAy, 
tefievatv > Eps^baos u~b ^b- 

tpov Vjshoz ds 
obpavou i^anoXtoXe, xoxr^ 

sTzedsdpoasv dyjJjz. 



THE QUOTATION. 

JaifiovtoC) zi xaxbv zoos Tida- 
yjzs ; VOXTt flSV upscov 

elXbazac xetpakal zs Tzpoacond 
zs vspds zs yuia, 

olacoyrj os didye, osodxpuu- 
zat os -apecar 



slocoAcov rs irXiov rrpbdupov, 

tzasctj os xal auAiij 
lefievcov Loijoaos urzo £0- 

COV JjSACOC OS 

obpavob i^a-oAcoAs, xaxrj o' 
s-cosdpopzv dylb^z. 



4. In the "Symposium," section 178, he quotes a 
brief passage from Hesiod's " Theogony," at line 116, 
omitting two entire lines, and drawing together the 
words preceding and following them. 



34 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 



THE ORIGINAL. 


THE QUOTATION. 


Auzdp i-stza 


Auzdp ixscza 


ra? eupuarepvot;, nduToav 


yaC e'jp'jozzpvoz, Tidvzcov 


Ido^ dcrcfuAkc at si 


edoz d(F(faA£z «'£-'j 


[adavdzcov, dc syouot xdprj 


ijff y Epo^. 


VC(f6zVTOC ' OX'J p7I0U,~] 




Tdpzapd r fjepoevra. p'J%oj 




ydovbq, eupoodsiys, 




/jd" *Epoz. 





5. In the "Laws," book IV., section 706, he quotes 
at length from the " Iliad," XIV., 96, the rebuke with 
which Ulysses answered the advice of Agamemnon to 
launch the ships and abandon the camp, but substitutes 
three words of his own for as many of the poet. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

0~ xsAeai, rroXspoco auviazab- 

roc xal duzvjz, 
vr t o.z Ibaai'kp.oDZ clXao £Xx£- 

psv, dfp izc fidXXov 
Tpcoal pkv suxzd yeuyzcu, 

imxpaziouffi izsp ip~r^, 
■fjptv d" aizbz oledpoc. i~cp- 

psTTTj. O'j yap Wyacol 
oyfjaovGcvnolepov, vycov alao 

eXxopsvdcou, 
dXX d7ro7ra-zavio>j<m>, ipcorj- 

aouai os ydpl lT h- 
* Evda xs or) ftovXy dyXrjaszat, 

opyaus Xaajv. 



THE QUOTATION. 

#c xeXeat rroXJpoco auvsazab- 

zoz xal duzYfi 
vyj.^ ioaaiXpooQ dXad" sXxscv, 

d(pp' izc pdXX.ov 
Tpcoal psu euxzd yivyzac 

ssX.dopsvocai rrsp ip~r^, 
fjp~iv d* ainbt: dXsdpoz i~cp- 

pi~7}' oi) yap Wyacoi 
ayrjaouacv ~oXJpou vqcov aX.ao 

kXxopsvdcuv, 
d//' d-Q-a-zo.vsouocv , ipco7J- 

aouac ds ydppr^. 
y Evda xs ay ftouXr] dyXytrszac, 

oV dyopsuscz. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 



35 



6. In the "Republic," book II., section 363, he 
quotes from the " Odyssey," XIX., 109, but omits en- 
tirely the second line of the passage. 



THE ORIGINAL. 



3 ' H ftaocAriOc. 



awjaovo^, oare 



Oeoudrjz 
dvdpdatv iu TzoWoioi xal l<p- 

tiipoimv dvdaocov, 
sbdtxiaz dvdffiar (pipyac 3k 

yala peXacva 
itvpobz xal xpedaz, ^pidr^ae 

3k Sivdpea xapzaj, 
zixvee d* ip7ie3a p^Aa, 6d- 

Aaaaa 3k itapiyet cydu^. 

7. In the "Republic," book II., section 364, he 
quotes a famous passage on prayer, from the " Iliad," 
IX., 497, but omits the whole of the second line and 
reproduces the third in an inaccurate form. 



THE QUOTATION. 

" H ftacrdyjoz dpupovoz oare 

zudtxiaz dviyjjoc, cpipr^c 3k 

yala peAatva 
Tzupohq, xal xpcdd^, ^pid^at 3k 

3£v3oea xap-w, 
rcxryj 3' iu-s3a py^a, 6d- 

Aaaaa 3k zapiyyj lydu^. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

ZrpsTTTol 3i re xal 

deol auzoi, 
zwvTzep xal pei^cov apery] 

rcpyj r£ ftirj re. 
Kal pkv rohz, dukeaat xal 

ebycoAy^ dya.vyjatv 
Xocpfj re xviay] re napa- 

rpcoTiaja avdpco~oc 
hoabpevot, ore xev rcz 

u7tepft'/}7} xal dpdpryj. 



THE QUOTATION. 



■£ xat 



HrpeTzrc 

deol auroc, 
xal robz pkv Quaiatat xal 

ebycoldlz dyavalacv 
lotfiy] re xviaayj re Tzapa- 



rpcoTLioa dvdpconot 



Acaaopevot, ore xsp zee urrep- 
ftyjyj xal apdprfi. 



36 



QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 



8. In the " Republic," book II., section 379, he 
quotes two lines from the "Iliad," XXIV., 527; but 
gives the second only in a general way, so that it is at 
first hardly to be recognized. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Kazaxziazat iv Jcbz oudec, 
da)pajv, 61a didcooc, xaxcov, 
erspoz ds idcov. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Kazaxecazai iu dcbz oidst 
Krjpcov ijATrAecoe, b iihv iad- 
/wv, auzdp b dzckcov. 



9. In the " Republic," book III., section 388, he 
quotes from the "Iliad," XVI., 433. The opening 
words of the quotation, " Ac ae\" are not in the original. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

y J2 fioc iycbv, oze pot Hapirq- 
dbva, (filzazov dvdpcou. 



M 



THE QUOTATION. 

ac kycov, bzs pa Hapten- 
dbva (pilzazov dvdpdjv. 



10. In the "Republic," book III., section 388, he 
quotes from the "Iliad," XXII., 168, the lamentation 
of Jove over the fall of Sarpedon, but changes one 
word. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

y H (p'dov dud pa duo- 

XOpSPOV TCepC Z£l%OQ 

6{pdaXpo"t(Jcv bpcopar ipbv d" 
oXcHpitpezai rjzop. 



THE QUOTATION. 

' H (f'dov dvdpa duo- 
xbpzvov ~spc aazo 
dtpdaXfioiatv bpwpai, ipbv d* 
dXocpupezat -7jzop. 



11. In the "Republic," book III., section 390, he 
quotes from the " Odyssey," IX., 8. The second and 
third words of the quotation are not in the original, but 
two others, of similar meaning, have been displaced by 
them. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 



37 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Tlapd dh -):/jdco aerpdm 



at 



aczo'j y.a.i xpeecoif* usu'j o zx tnroo xat xpzccov* 



THE QUOTATION. 

flapanXecou wot rpdne^cu 

ISO'J zx 



xpynjpoc; ae'jGOtov 
obsoyooz cpopi^ac xa.l ^"f'/^Jj 

dz~dzGGiV. 



oivoyooQ (fopsj/Gi xat iyyiiT] 

OZTzdzGGl. 



12. In the "Republic," book III., section 408, he 
quotes from the "Iliad," IV., 218, but changes for 
others the fourth and last words of the line. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Alp? ixpo^yaaz, in? dp vjzca 
(fdppaxa eidtu<r. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Up £xp.'JZ7;Gai<7 em r rp 
cdppax STZaGGOV. 



13. In the "Republic," book IV., section 424, he 
quotes from the "Odyssey," I., 351, but discards two 
words for others of his own. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

*Aoedjp> p&AAov imxXei- 



O'JG aVUP(D7IOC, 



yifli 



axouo^TSGGc vzcozazr. 



THE QUOTATION. 

"AoiOYjV paXkov eicuppoveowf 

avdpco-ot, 

Yj TCC CLZCOOVTZGGi VeatT&TT] 

dptpeneAqrou. 

14. In the "Republic," book V., section 469, he 
quotes from the "Works and Days" of Hesiod, line 
121. In the original there are thirteen words. Plato 
omits six of these, and replaces them with four others. 



ducc-sAYjZa.'. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Toe pkv oalpovic, eiGt Acb^ 
psydXo'j oca ftouXdz 

eGdAoi, iire%06vtoe, (f'jAaxz^ 
OwjTaiv dvOpcoTZcov. 



THE QUOTATION. 

01 peu daipovez dyvol i-rydo- 

VtOt TSAsdo'JGCV, 

iG0Aoc\ dAe&exaxoe, (pulaxe<: 

pSp6~COV dvdpdiT.iOV. 



38 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

15. Usually the changes which Plato makes in his 
quotations do not affect his course of thought. But 
there is at least one remarkable exception to this rule. 
In the " Laws," book VI., section yyy, he quotes from 
the " Odyssey," XVIL, 322, to show that slavery cor- 
rupts the enslaved. Homer says : 

On the day that one becomes a slave, 

The Thunderer, Jove, takes half his manliness away. 

This is in the exact direction of Plato's argument. But 
he carelessly diverts it from its proper bearing by mak- 
ing it read : 

Jove takes half his understanding away. 
He introduces also several other verbal changes. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

p Hpaau yap t dpezr^ dnoai- 

vurat eupuoTra Zebz 
avepoz, eut av fuv xard 006- 



THE QUOTATION. 

u Hptou yap ts vooi) aTiausips- 

rat eupuona Zsuz 
dvdpcov ouz du drj xavd dou- 

hov fj/iap ehjOc. 



Aristotle is even less careful of verbal accuracy. 1 
Thus in his " Rhetoric," book I., chapter 15, section 1, 
he borrows from the " Antigone " of Sophocles. " The 
quotation," says Welldon, 2 " is made somewhat loosely, 
as though the passage would be familiar to every one." 
Cope 3 says that Aristotle "usually misquotes" Homer; 
and again that " his fashion is " to misquote in general. 

1 See, for example, Grant's " Aristotle," " Nicomachian Ethics," III., 
8, 4, no'.e. Aristotle not seldom attributes his quotations to the wrong 
sources. 

2 "The Rhetoric of Aristotle," Welldon, p. ioi, note 2. 

3 In his " Rhetoric of Aristotle," Vol. I., p. 207, note, and p. 276, note. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 



39 



The latest of the great Greek writers with whose 
productions any of the apostles would be acquainted is 
Plutarch, who was born a. d. 40, and must have pub- 
lished many of his works before the end of the first 
century, when it is supposed the " beloved disciple " 
was about to close his life. Plutarch quotes in the 
same inexact manner with others. 

Thus in his treatise on the " Delay of the Divine 
Justice," at the beginning of the twentieth chapter, he 
has a citation from the " Works and Days " of Hesiod, 
which, as Hackett 1 points out in his note on the 
passage, is " apparently from memory," as it is not 
literal. 

At the close of his treatise on "The Love of 
Wealth," he quotes a short line from the " Iliad," 
XXIII. , 259, omitting a word. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Nqajv d' ixcpep aeOXa, Xeft/}- 
xdq, re rp'Trodds vs. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Nyjcov S" ixipepe Xi^zdQ vs 
rpcTcoodz re. 



In his treatise on " The Folly of Seeking Many 
Friends," section 5, he quotes a line from the "Iliad," 
V., 902. In the original there are eight words ; in the 
quotation, nine ; three of which, however, are wrong. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

c J2c ff or otto^ yd.Xa Xeoxbv 



THE QUOTATION. 

Qs & or orrb^ fdX.a Xzuxbv 
iyopipcoaev xal eoqas. 



I cite, as an instance of inexact quotation in Greek 



1 " Delay of the Deity in the Punishment of the Wicked," p. 13&, 
note 1. 



4-0 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

literature later than the apostles, the following lines 
from the "Iliad," XX., 127. They are found in Lu- 
cian's " Philopatris." 

Whatever web the Parcae at his birth 

For him have wove, that is his fate on earth. 

Tooke 1 translates the lines thus, and adds: "The 
author quotes the passage from memory, with his own 
alterations." 

Cicero may be taken as the best example of the Latin 
writers, and though often verbally exact, he is not uni- 
formly so. 

Thus in his " Letters to Atticus," IV., 7, he quotes 
three words from the " Odyssey," XXII., 412, but mis- 
takes as to one of them. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

0u% ooiq, xvapLSVocacv. 



THE QUOTATION. 

0u% ooir) (pdc[i£vocacv. 



In his "Letters to Atticus," I., 16, he quotes from 
the " Iliad," XVL, 1 12, but omits three words from the 
latter half of the first line. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

"Eaters vuv fiot, Mouaat 
'OAufima dco/iaz lyouoat, 

01Z7ZCOC, dr] TTpCOTOV Ttup 

ifineae. 



THE QUOTATION. 
* E(T7TSTS VUV JUOC MoiHTCU, 07T- 

tzioc, drj npajzov nop e/i- 

Treae. 



In his "Letters to Atticus," II., 11, he quotes two 
lines from the " Odyssey," IX., 27, inserting a word 
which is not in the original. 

1 Tooke's " Lucian," II., p. 723. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 41 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Tprffju \ dXX dyad}] 

xouporpofo^' oh rot iycoye 
rjc yol^c, ditvapat 

yXuxspcorspov aXXo idea- 

6ac. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Tpvj^sT, dXX' dyadrj 

xoopozpoipoz' ourt dp iycoys 
rjz ycii-qc, duvapac yXuxepco- 

zepov dkXo idiodac. 



In his "Republic," book I., section 32, he quotes a 
line from Ennius, with the word " regni " in the second 
place. In the " De Officiis," book 1, section 8, he 
quotes the same line with the word in the sixth place. 

In his "Republic," book I., section 41, he quotes 
three lines from the "Annals" of Ennius; but omits 
the closing word of the first, and a whole line between 
the second and third. See "The Republic of Cicero," 
by G. G. Hardingham, p. 112, note 145. 

The following, from Trollope's " Cicero," i states 
very well, if somewhat strongly, the attitude of the 
Latin writers in general toward Greek literature, and 
the great freedom with which they quoted it : 

The Romans, in translating from the Greek, thinking nothing 
of literary excellence, felt that they were bringing Greek thought 
into a form of language in which it could thus be made useful. 
There was no value for the words, but only for the thing to be 
found in them. . . The general liberty of translation has been so 
frequently taken by the Latin poets — by Virgil and Horace, let 
us say — that they have been regarded by some as no more than 
translators. . . There has been no need to them for a close 
translation. They have found the idea, and their object has 
been to present it to their readers in the best possible language. 

Similarly Reid says, in his "Academica of Cicero" : 2 
1 Vol. II., P . 253. * Pp. 24, 51. 



42 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

The philosophical works of Cicero were merely transcripts 
from the most approved Greek writings on the subjects with which 
they deal. The arguments in favor of dogmatism are frequently 
stated by Cicero to be wholly taken from his old teacher, Antio- 
chus of Ascalon. That Cicero did not rely on his own recollec- 
tion of Antiochus' lectures, but transcribed the opinions from a 
book or books by the master, can be clearly proved, though the 
fact is nowhere stated. . . His writings are in fact, to a great 
extent, translations, though free translations, from the Greek 
sources. 

It would be easy to extend these evidences from the 
classics, but I shall close with three instances from 
Seneca, who was a contemporary of the Apostle Paul. 

In his seventy-sixth letter, he quotes from the 
"yEneid," VI., 103, with a mistake of one word for 
another. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Non ulla laborum, 
O virgo, nova mi facies 

inopinave surgit : 
Omnia praecepi, atque ani- 

mo mecum ante peregi. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Non ulla laborum, 
O virgo, nova mi facies 

inopinave surgit : 
Omnia praecepi, atque ani- 

mo mecum ipse peregi. 



In his eighty-sixth letter he quotes a line from the 
" Georgics," I., 215, but adds a word, and also substi- 
tutes one word for another. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Vere fabis satio ; turn te 
quoque, medica, putres. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Vere fabis satio est ; tunc 
te quoque, medica, putres. 



In his ninety-third letter he quotes ten lines from 
the " Georgics," III., 75, omitting two lines in the heart 
of the passage, and mistaking a word in the third line. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 43 

Philo conformed to the methods of quoting which 
were pursued alike by the Hebrew and the classical 
writers, being familiar with the productions of both. 
As he was born about twenty years before Christ, his 
books may have assisted to form the style of some of 
the authors of the New Testament ; but whether this 
is true or not, they illustrate the literary customs of the 
first century. His quotations are from the Septuagint, 
like those of the apostles and evangelists ; but he 
sometimes shows an acquaintance with the original 
Hebrew, and leans toward it. Siegfried, l who has ex- 
amined his quotations with much care, has assembled 
a great number which are inexact. I give but a single 
example : 

In his treatise on " Meeting for the Sake of Receiv- 
ing Instruction," he quotes from Lev. 18 : 1-5. He 
begins with verses 1 and 2 and a part of verse 3 ; then 
a succeeding part of verse 3 is omitted and its closing 
words are given ; then follows the beginning of verse 4, 
then the omitted portion of verse 3, then a further por- 
tion of verse 4, then verse 5. 

The early Fathers of the church continued the cus- 
tom of quoting with little reference to verbal exact- 
ness. Reuss 2 says of their quotations : " They are 
mostly only small fragments taken out of the Scriptures 
and applied to various uses in the later theological 
works ; and these uses did not always require strict 
adherence to the original words, bat permitted quota- 
tion from memory simply, which is oftener the case 

1 See his ,three articles in Hilgenfeld's " Zeitschrift fur wissenschaft- 
liche Theologie," 1873. 

2 " History of the New Testament Scriptures," Vol. II., section 394. 



44 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

the farther back we go." Hence, these quotations are 
of little use in establishing the text of the New Tes- 
tament. 

Indeed, the custom of verbal exactness in quoting is 
not yet a century old. In the time of Jeremy Taylor it 
was still unknown, and in his works he cites the Scrip- 
tures with the utmost freedom. Dr. Ezra Abbot took 
pains to count in how many ways this author quoted a 
single passage of the New Testament (John 3 : 3-5). 
He says: 1 " I have noted nine quotations of the pas- 
sage by Jeremy Taylor. All of these differ from the 
common English version, and only two of them are 
alike." He shows that the same verses are quoted in 
the Book of Common Prayer a without regard to verbal 
precision. 

The propriety of quoting from memory, and without 
regard to verbal exactness, is admitted by Kuenen; 3 
but he accuses the writers of the New Testament of 
sometimes altering not only the words, but also the es- 
sential meaning of certain passages. He says : 

It is not to those numerous divergences which have little or 
no effect upon the meaning of the citation that I wish to direct 
attention. But along with these, others of a less innocent 
nature occur. The alterations introduced, designedly or un- 
designedly, by the New Testament writers, are often very 
essential. They affect the thought of the Old Testament writer, 
substitute something else in its stead, give it a specific direction, 
or limit it in such a way that it is made to apply to one single 
object. It was with regard to such modifications that I thought 
myself justified in asserting that they cannot but exert an influ- 

1 "The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel," p. 39. 

2 Public Baptism of Infants. Baptism of Those of Riper Years. 

3 " Prophets and Prophecy in Israel," p. 459. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 45 

ence on the judgment formed regarding the inferences which are 
deduced (by the New Testament writer) from the citation. For 
him who adheres strictly to the original, these inferences have 
no force as proofs. 

This is a grave accusation, for it affirms that the au- 
thors of the New Testament have altered, perhaps 
"designedly," some of the passages of the Old which 
they quote, so as to transform them by this violent 
method into "proofs" of teachings to which, in their 
original state, they bear no testimony. Kuenen at- 
tempts to sustain this charge of ignorance or design 
by seven examples, five of which I shall examine here, 
leaving two to be considered in other chapters, where 
they properly belong. We may be certain that these 
examples are the strongest and clearest which Kuenen 
could discover ; for a critic so able and so much accus- 
tomed to debate would not fail to select the most effect- 
ive weapons. If therefore they shall turn out to be 
quite innocent, because quite in accordance with the 
laws of literature, we may dismiss more briefly any 
others which we may be called upon to notice in the 
farther progress of our work. 

The first instance is Isa. 28 : 16, as quoted in 
Rom. 9:33; 10 : 1 1 ; 1 Peter 2 : 6, 8. The Hebrew 
reads, as translated by Toy : " Behold, I found in Zion 
a stone, a precious corner-stone, solidly founded ; he 
who trusts shall not make haste." The accusation of 
Kuenen is based on the fact that the passage is quoted 
in the New Testament with the addition of the words 
" in him," so that it reads : " He who trusts in him 
shall not make haste." He objects to the words "in 
him," "because," he says, "they make it possible to 



46 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

understand the trusting of which the prophet speaks 
as trusting in the Christ. If they are omitted, then, 
of course, he means trusting in Jahveh." 

The answer is two-fold. 

First, the words " in him " are found also in the Tar- 
gum on the passage, 1 proving that the rabbis were ac- 
customed to insert them as an explanation of the mean- 
ing. 2 They also considered the passage Messianic, as 
the Targum shows. It referred primarily to Jehovah, 
who, the prophet says, in the disasters of Israel from 
the hostilities of the Assyrians, will set himself and 
his word as a firm foundation-stone. Those who be- 
lieve on him, or on it, shall not make haste to flee from 
the enemy. But the rabbis may have been quite right 
in seeing in the verse also a prediction of the Messiah, 
on the principle of double reference, which I shall con- 
sider in the ninth chapter of this book. 

But secondly, we do not need to insist upon this. 
We may allow Toy, who belongs to the same school of 
criticism with Kuenen, to express for us the view which 
we may adopt, and which at once refutes the charge 
which we are considering : " The spiritual principle an- 
nounced by the prophet — that God is a firm foundation 
for those who trust in him, and a terror to those who 
willfully reject him — finds a new illustration in every 
new manifestation of him, and the most striking of all 
in the last and highest self-manifestation in Jesus 
Christ." We may carry this thought a little farther. 
The apostles taught that Christ was " God manifest in 

1 Toy, " Quotations," p. 146. 

2 The custom of adding to a passage words designed to explain it will 
be considered in our fourth chapter. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 47 

the flesh." Hence, to believe on Jehovah truly was 
to believe on Christ, and to believe on Christ was to 
believe on Jehovah : " Whosoever denieth the Son, the 
same hath not the Father : he that confesseth the Son 
hath the Father also." l All Christians to-day hold 
this. Much, therefore, of that which was said of Je- 
hovah could be applied to Christ with perfect pro- 
priety, as in the quotation before us, where the effect 
of faith in Jehovah and the effect of faith in Christ are 
justly held to be similar or identical. 

Another instance of such a change in the quotation 
as Kuenen thinks cannot be justified, he finds in Rom. 
1 1 : 2-4, where the sacred writer quotes from 1 Kings 
19 : 10-18. If we turn to the Old Testament passage, 
we read that Elijah in a moment of discouragement, 
mourns that he is left alone in his allegiance to Jeho- 
vah, while all the rest of his nation have become Baal- 
worshipers. The result may be stated in the words of 
Kuenen : 

The complaint is answered by Jahveh commanding him to 
anoint Hazael to be king of Syria, Jehu to be king of Israel, and 
Elisha to be a prophet. " It shall come to pass," so it is said 
farther, " that him that escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu 
slay ; and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. 
Yet I will leave seven thousand in Israel, all the knees that have 
not bowed before Baal, and every mouth which hath not paid 
homage to him." The meaning is not for a moment doubtful : 
the judgment to be executed by Hazael, Jehu, and Elisha, of 
course strikes the wicked ; . . . only those faithful to Jahveh, 
seven thousand in number — a round number, of course — shall 
be spared, and shall remain after the punishment has been 
executed. But of this narrative Paul takes the first verse, the 

1 1 John 2 : 23. 



48 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

complaint of Elijah, and the last, the prophecy concerning the 
sparing of the seven thousand, and cites them in such a way 
that he brings them into immediate connection with each other. 
For in place of " I will leave, ' ' he writes : "I have reserved to 
myself seven thousand men who have not bowed the knee 
before Baal." Elijah complains, "I am left alone" ; God re- 
plies, "Thou art mistaken; there are still seven thousand 
faithful men remaining." Of this opposition, or if it be pre- 
ferred, of this correction of Elijah, there is no trace to be found 
in the original. True, the inference may also be derived from 
it that Elijah was not the only servant of Jahveh, and had there- 
fore been guilty of exaggeration in his despondency ; but in the 
quotation as given by Paul this stands in the foreground as the 
real chief matter. 



The first charge against the writer of Romans is that 
he changes the tense of the original, and makes God 
say, not " I will leave seven thousand," but " I have 
reserved seven thousand." This change, however, 
makes absolutely no difference with the course of 
thought pursued by the apostle, which is as follows : 
Elijah deemed himself alone in his faithfulness ; but 
God declared that it was not so, that a very large 
number should be preserved from idolatry and from 
its punishment. "In the same manner, then," the 
apostle continues, " at the present time there is a rem- 
nant according to the election of grace." " As there 
was a remnant of old, so there is a remnant now. " 
Let the reader change the tense of the quotation and 
make it future or past, as he prefers, and he will see 
that the historic parallel remains wholly unaffected. 

When Kuenen denies that the answer of Jehovah 
was intended to cheer the despondency of Elijah by 
showing him that he was not alone, he goes very far in 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 49 

order to discover a small objection to the New Testa- 
ment. It is difficult to understand how any fair man, 
after reading the narrative, can say : " Of this correction 
of Elijah there is no trace to be found in the original." 
The entire answer was adapted to remove the dis- 
couragement of the prophet, and Toy is right in calling 
it " God's consoling word to Elijah." 

Does the apostle consider the answer of God to Eli- 
jah a prediction of a remnant of Israel in his own days ? 
Toy 1 answers in the affirmative, and there need be no 
objection to this view. The argument would then 
be as follows : " As God was careful even in such 
times of declension to keep a remnant of Israel true, so 
will he be careful now. His mercy, so conspicuously 
displayed then, is a pledge and prophecy that his 
mercy to his chosen people shall never fail." This use 
of sacred history is common. Knowing that God is 
unchangeable, we say : " He made his gospel prevalent 
over ancient heathenism, and this is a sure prophecy of 
the success of modern missions to the heathen." " He 
did not permit the Roman government to destroy his 
holy word in the third century, and this is a sure 
prophecy that he will not permit it to be destroyed 
by any of its foes, but will give it to the world." " He 
sustained me wonderfully in my great trials last year, 
and this is a sure prophecy that he will not desert me 
in those which are to come." 

But we are not obliged to take this view. Toy bases 
it on the word rendered " then " in both our Common 
and Revised English versions of verse five. He con- 

1 "Quotations," p. 154. 
E 



50 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

siders this word as equivalent to " therefore." But 
it is by no means always so ; and it is perhaps not 
usually so. Thayer 1 gives this as its primary, though 
not its only meaning, and adds that " others regard the 
primary force of the word as confirmatory and continu- 
ative, rather than illative," and cites Passow, Liddell 
and Scott, Kiihner, Baumlein, Kriiger, Donaldson, 
Rost, Klotz, and Hartung, as holding the latter opin- 
ion. If we read the passage in this latter way, we 
shall regard its author as referring to the story of Eli- 
jah merely for an encouraging example, a vivid illustra- 
tion, a historic parallel. 

Another instance of what Kuenen regards as un- 
warranted change is found at I Cor. 14 : 21, 22, where 
the Apostle Paul quotes Isa. 28 : 11, 12, as follows: 
" In the law it is written, By men of strange tongues 
and by the lips of strangers will I speak unto this 
people, and not even thus will they hear me, saith the 
Lord. Wherefore tongues are for a sign, not to them 
that believe, but to the unbelieving." 

The truth which the apostle here illustrates, is that 
the gift of tongues is not an evidence of a high degree 
of faith, as is that of prophecy, but of a relatively low 
degree of faith. He illustrates it by quoting a passage 
in which Isaiah upbraids the people for their disobedi- 
ence. The prophet had pointed out to them their true 
rest, but they would not enter into it. He therefore 
declares that God will speak to them " by men of for- 
eign tongues and by the lips of foreigners," referring 
to the Assyrians, who were destined to carry them 

1 " Lexicon," at the word ovv. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 5 1 

away captive to a land where they would hear a for- 
eign speech. This is to befall them because when they 
were admonished "they would not hear." Now in 
place of this last phrase, "they would not hear," the 
apostle has, " and yet for all that they will not hear 
me." This is the change which Kuenen condemns, 
affirming that it favors, if it was not designed to favor, 
the teaching of the apostle that the gift of tongues is 
a sign to the unbelieving. But it does not in the least. 
The original may be considered even stronger, since it 
connects by a direct assertion the affliction of foreign 
tongues with the unbelief of the people, making the 
latter the cause of the former. Toy is much more 
moderate here than Kuenen, and says : " The apostle 
gives the verbal sense of the Hebrew with general 
correctness in his translation." 

The difficulties found with the passage arise chiefly 
from misinterpretation. The erroneous view often 
advanced is this : When the writer says that " tongues 
are for a sign to the unbelieving," he has in mind the 
heathen who might be present in the Christian assem- 
bly. These heathen would not understand the sign ; 
they would say: "Ye are mad." Hence the writer 
changes the quotation to make it correspond with this 
rejection of the sign, and represents the prophet as 
saying : " And not even thus will they hear me, saith 
the Lord," instead of : " Yet they would not hear." 

But this view of the statement that " tongues are 
for a sign to the unbelieving " is wrong, for the follow- 
ing reasons : (i) The unbelievers upbraided and threat- 
ened by Isaiah, in the passage quoted, are not the 
heathen — they are the Jews ; and hence the "unbeliev- 



52 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

ing" in Corinth to whom "tongues were for a sign" 
were not the heathen, but the erring people of God, 
of whom the faithless Jews were a type. (2) The 
Apostle Paul was not so foolish as to say that "tongues 
are for a sign to a class of men who would not prob- 
ably hear them at all, and who, if they heard them, as 
he himself says, would necessarily suppose the speakers 
to be insane. (3) The antithesis established in the sen- 
tence shows that the writer is thinking of an unbeliev- 
ing church, as contrasted with a believing church, 
when he says that " tongues are for a sign, not to them 
that believe, but to the unbelieving : but prophesying 
is for a sign, not to the unbelieving, but to them that 
believe." Who are they "that believe" in this case? 
Not the heathen, but a church well advanced in Chris- 
tian faith. The "unbelieving" therefore are not the 
heathen, but a church little advanced in Christian faith. 
(4) Let us assume for a moment that the " unbeliev- 
ing " are those without the church, and the " believ- 
ing" those within, and see what conclusion we are 
driven to. "Tongues," in that case, "are a sign" to 
those without the church, and yet produce no good 
effect upon them ; while " prophecy " " is not a sign " to 
those without, and yet becomes the means of their con- 
version. The "philosophic apostle" never reasoned in 
this way. Evidently, then, the two " signs," " tongues " 
and " prophecy," are considered in this passage as 
"signs" in relation to the church, and not in relation 
to those without the church, though in relation to 
these also "prophecy" might be called a very valuable 
" sign," since it is adapted to reach their minds and 
consciences. 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 53 

Is it said that the apostle would not apply the word 
"unbelieving" to the Corinthian church? But in 
Titus 1 115 he applies it to recreant Christians, and 
in John 20 : 27 our Lord himself applies it to Thomas, 
one of his apostles. Then why should it not be ap- 
plied here to a church proven by the whole epistle to 
have been complacent in the toleration of most fright- 
ful sins in its communicants ? 

Is it said that the writer applies the word " unbe- 
lieving " in the very next verse to the heathen ? Yes ; 
he permits it to return to its ordinary reference there, 
as is natural. This sudden shifting of the reference 
of a word is common in- all literatures, and I could 
readily adduce a hundred instances of it both from 
classical English and classical Greek ; but the follow- 
ing examples from a single book of the New Testa- 
ment may suffice" : the word " temple," John 2 : 19, 20; 
the word " born," 3:6; the words "lifted up," 3 : 14; 
the word "water," 4 : 10, 11 ; the word "thirst," 4 : 
14, 15; the words "to eat," 4:32, 33; the word 
"harvest," 4:35; the word "meat," 6 : 27 ; the word 
"bread," 6 : 32 ; the words "eat" and "flesh," 6 : 52, 
53, 63 ; the word "father," 8 : 38, 39, 56; the word 
"God," 10 : 35, 36; the word "sleep," 11 : 11, 12; 
the word "wash," 13 :8; the word "world," 17 : 
24, 25. 

The interpretation of the passage which I have given 
is sustained by Beet, Conybeare, Storr, Flatt, Baur, 
Schulz, Kling, and many others. 

The argument of the apostle then is as follows : Had 
the Israelites before the captivity believed Jehovah, 
they would have listened to Isaiah the prophet, and 



54 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

would have been nourished and guided by the gift of 
prophecy ; but as they were unbelieving, the best that 
God could do for them was to speak to them in the 
unknown tongues of foreigners. Even so, had the 
Corinthian Christians been in a believing state, they 
would have possessed the gift of prophecy, and would 
have been nourished and guided by their prophets ; but 
as they were relatively unbelieving, the best that God 
could do for them was to send them the lowest of 
spiritual gifts, that of unknown tongues, a sign to 
strengthen the feeble remnants of such faith as they 
possessed, but also a sign signifying the feebleness of 
their faith. By seeking greater faith they would attain 
higher gifts and receive the grace of prophecy, while 
still retaining in due measure the " tongues " on which 
they set such an exaggerated estimate. 

Meyer, in his third edition, regards the " tongues " of 
the Old Testament passage as typical of the " tongues" 
of the apostolic age, since the foreign speaking of the 
Assyrians is declared by Isaiah to be in some sense 
the speaking of God to his people. " The analogy," 
says Kling, stating the view of Meyer, " between the 
type and the antitype is founded on the extraordinary 
phenomenon of God's speaking to his people in a for- 
eign tongue ; " and, I may add, speaking in this way 
instead of through his prophets. I have no special 
objection to this view; yet I incline to that of Shore, 1 
who regards the citation as " rather an illustration" 
than a proof ; and of Hodge, who says that " Paul does 
not quote the passage as having any prophetic refer- 

1 In Ellicott's " New Testament Commentary.' 5 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 55 

ence to the events in Corinth." It is a vice of many 
commentators to see in every quotation of the New- 
Testament an effort to prove something ; whereas the 
great majority of them, as of the quotations in general 
literature, are merely for illustration, for ornamentation, 
or for force of language. The only reason for suppos- 
ing that the quotation here is for proof of doctrine, is 
found in the Greek word rendered " wherefore," at the 
beginning of the twenty-second verse. But this word 
is not necessarily one of logical inference. Gould 1 
gives it only the force of "and so," or "so that." 
Meyer renders it here by " sonach," which his English 
translators render in turn by "accordingly." The 
Greek word is used here with a verb in the indicative, 
and not in the infinitive ; and " the distinction," says 
Winer, "seems to be this: with the indicative it pre- 
sents the facts in succession purely externally as ante- 
cedent and consequent ; while with the infinitive it 
brings them into closer connection as issuing one from 
the other." 

The " tongues " referred to by Isaiah were very dif- 
ferent from the "tongues" referred to by Paul; and 
many critics regard the parallel as chiefly one of words 
rather than of the things signified. I do not agree 
with them, for there is a very real analogy between the 
two cases, taken as a whole. But if their view shall 
commend itself to any reader, he will find abundant 
instances of this sort of illustration in all literatures, as 
I have shown in our eighth chapter. 

Still another example of alleged unwarranted change 

i " American Commentary." 



56 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

adduced by Kuenen is found in 2 Cor. 6:18, where the 
Apostle Paul is rehearsing certain admonitions and 
promises made to the children of God, and using them 
as the ground of his exhortation to abstain from the 
pollutions of the heathen world. Among these prom- 
ises is the following : 

I will be to you a Father, 

And ye shall be to me sons and daughters. 

It is to this that Kuenen specially objects. Accord- 
ing to him, and many others with him, it is from the 
address of God to David concerning Solomon in 2 Sam. 
7:14: "I will be his father, and he shall be my son." 
The apostle changes the person and the number, in 
order to make the passage apply, not to Solomon, but 
to Christians, which, the adverse critic holds, he has 
no right to do. 

There can be no objection to the supposition that 
the words spoken by God concerning Solomon are in 
the mind of the apostle, and are adapted by slight 
changes to their new position in his writings. The 
promise made to David concerning Solomon was based 
upon the character of both, and, inasmuch as God 
" changeth not " and " is no respecter of persons," they 
belong to every devout soul. This promise is often 
used in the modern pulpit, and in modern religious 
literature, in the same manner, as the voice of God 
to us. Indeed, the great majority of the promises of 
holy Scripture were made to individuals who lived cen- 
turies ago, and not directly to us. Yet we always 
quote them as pointing to ourselves. Nor do we con- 
sider it necessary to excuse ourselves when we do so ; 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 57 

the immutability and impartiality of God enter so 
deeply into Christian consciousness that we never 
think of calling them in question, or of reasoning to 
establish them. This is the view of the writers of the 
New Testament, as, for instance, in I Cor. 10 : n : 
" Now these things happened unto them by way of ex- 
ample : and they are written for our admonition, upon 
whom the ends of the ages are come." The criticism 
of Kuenen would forbid us to apply any promises of 
the Bible to ourselves, except those of a very general 
nature. "Thy brother shall rise again," would not be 
for us. "Them that are fallen asleep in Jesus will 
God bring with him," would not be for us. " Believe 
on the Lord Jesus, and thou shalt be saved," would not 
be for us. We cannot admit the objection based upon 
the application to all Christians of words spoken con- 
cerning one whom God recognized as his child. Nor 
can we condemn the apostle for the slight grammatical 
changes by which he adapts the words to their new 
position, for we often quote in the same manner. We 
say : " Your brother shall rise again," when we are at- 
tending the funeral of a young Christian man, and are 
endeavoring to console his bereaved family. We say : 
" He has fallen asleep in Jesus, and therefore God will 
bring him with Christ at the last day." We say : " Be- 
lieve on the Lord Jesus, and ye shall be saved," apply- 
ing to many hearers or readers the promise given to a 
single individual. In a thousand such instances we 
change the grammatical person, the number, the tense, 
and yet quote faithfully. 

I am not confident, however, that the quotation is 
taken from 2 Sam. 7:14. It seems to me to be rather 



58 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

a summing up of various expressions in the prophets, 
like those of Ezek. 36:28: " Ye shall be my people, and 
I will be your God ; " or like those of Jer. 31 : I, 4, 20, 
22, 33 : " I will be the God of all the families of Israel, 
and they shall be my people ; " " Thou shalt be built, O 
virgin of Israel ; " " Is Ephraim my dear son ? Is he a 
pleasant child?" " O thou back-sliding daughter;" 
" I will be their God, and they shall be my people." 
This is the more probable, since the quotation 1 with 
which the whole series here opens is a combination and 
condensation of two passages, such as I shall illustrate 
in the fifth chapter of this book. The application to 
Christians of promises made to penitent and believing 
Israel needs no argument to justify it, since it is con- 
stantly illustrated in every sermon and every religious 
book. 

One more of the examples of freedom in quoting 
which Kuenen adduces to condemn, is in Eph. 4 : 8. 
The Apostle Paul is speaking of the spiritual gifts of 
Christ to his people. They are " according to the 
measure of the gift of Christ " ; that is, as many com- 
mentators hold, according to his wise and holy pleasure ; 
or, perhaps better, according to his abundance and lib- 
erality. To illustrate the statement that the spiritual 
gifts of the church are from Christ, the writer quotes 
from Ps. 68 : 18 : 

When he ascended on high, he led captivity captive, 
And gave gifts unto men. 

1 2 Cor. 6 : 16: "I will dwell in them and walk with them," from 
Lev. 26 : II, 12 and Ezek. 37 : 27. Toy calls the citation a " combination 
of the two passages, and condensation." 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 59 

But turning to the psalm, we perceive that the second 
of these lines is as follows : 

Thou hast received gifts among men. 

Here apparently is a radical change ; in the psalm the 
person addressed receives gifts from men ; in the quota- 
tion he distributes them among: men. 

The explanation is to be found largely in the remark 
of Meyer, l that the Hebrew word rendered ''received" 
" has often the proleptic sense to fetch, that is, to take 
anything for a person and to give it to him." The 
apostle, in the opinion of Meyer, makes '■ an exposition 
of the Hebrew words, which yielded essentially the 
sense expressed by him." He read the psalm as say- 
ing : " Thou didst receive gifts to distribute them 
among men" ; and, to quote Meyer again, "translated 
this in an explanatory way." The " Speaker's Com- 
mentary " gives the following instances of this use of 
the Hebrew word: Gen. 18 : 5; 27 : 13 ; 42 : 16; 
Exod. 27 : 20; Lev. 24 : 2 ; and 2 Kings 2 : 20. 
Ellicott 2 says the word is used "constantly" in this 
sense. " It appears," according to Toy, " that such a 
translation existed among the Jews ; for it is found 
in the Peshito-Syriac and the Targum." 

Even if the Hebrew word had not contained this 
thought, the apostle would have found the psalm full 
of it, and would only have expressed the meaning of 
the whole sublime ode by his phraseology. 

A father of the fatherless and a judge of the widows 
Is God in his holy habitation. 

1 " Commentary on Ephesians." 2 " Commentary on Ephesians." 



60 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

He bringeth out the prisoners into prosperity. 

Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, 

Thou didst confirm thine inheritance when it was weary. 

Thou, O God, didst prepare thy goodness for the poor. 

She that tarrieth at home divideth the spoil. 

Blessed be the Lord Jehovah, who daily beareth our burdens. 

Such are some of the expressions of this psalm con- 
cerning the gifts of God to men. 

Moreover, as all interpreters agree, the psalm cele- 
brates a victory, or a series of victories. It represents 
the conqueror as returning home crowned with glory 
and laden with the fruits of success. Now, ancient 
warfare always resulted in the spoiling of the van- 
quished ; men enlisted in the army in the hope of en- 
riching themselves with plunder ; and the victor, who 
stripped his foes and received gifts from the peoples 
he subdued, made large distribution to his followers ; 
to take was to give ; and the two things would readily 
be associated in the thought as one. The explanation 
of the verse given by the apostle in this change of 
its form, if we are to recognize a change, would strike 
his readers as a natural and obvious method of bring- 
ing out the real meaning of the original. 

The literary custom of changing a quotation in order 
to explain it will be considered in our fourth chapter, 
and the Messianic character of the psalm in the ninth. 

It might have been gratifying to us, in a certain 
sense, had the writers of the New Testament quoted the 
Septuagint version with verbal exactness, as they would 
have contributed much, in that case, to the restoration 
of the text of this version, now in some disorder. But 
this one small advantage would have been overbalanced 



QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 6 1 

by disadvantages of a serious kind. Had the writers 
of the New Testament departed from the literary cus- 
toms of their age, to quote with verbal exactness in all 
instances, their example would have been cited as ir- 
refutable proof of verbal and mechanical, instead of 
dynamic inspiration. Their freedom in quoting has 
done much to deliver us from this view, once so 
generally held, and now as generally abandoned. But 
further ; such careful adherence to the letter of 
the Greek version would have been regarded as a 
divine seal set upon this version ; and it would 
have taken the place of final authority which the 
Roman Catholics sought to give to the Latin Vulgate 
by a decree of the Council of Trent, 1 and no subse- 
quent discovery of its many blemishes would have suf- 
ficed to undo the mischief or relieve the sensitive con- 
sciences of the faithful, who would have been cast into 
distressing perplexity by this plenary approval of a 
work which their reason could not but pronounce im- 
perfect. But also unbelievers would have seen their 
opportunity, and critics of the school of Kuenen would 
have been the first to reproach the writers of the New 
Testament both for holding an erroneous doctrine of 
inspiration and for ignorance of the faults of the Sep- 
tuagint version. These writers were wise, therefore, 
in quoting as they did, with primary reference to the 
meaning, and with a certain disregard of the language. 

i Schaff, "The Creeds of Christendom," Vol. II., p. 82. 



Ill 

FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 

THE writers of the New Testament often make use 
of quotations so brief and fragmentary that the 
reader cannot readily determine the degree of support, 
if any, which is thus gained for the argument. This 
is for substance one of the objections of Kuenen, who 
writes as follows of the psalms usually termed Mes- 
sianic : 

Of these psalms some verses, or occasionally a single verse, 
are quoted as prophecies concerning the Christ, or as contain- 
ing words of the Christ, generally without the difficulties in 
the way of such an explanation, which can be drawn from 
other parts, being discussed or removed. 

It is true that brief and fragmentary quotations from 
the Old Testament occur in the New, but the blame 
implied in the statement of Kuenen is unjust, and re- 
sults from inattention to the quotations in general lit- 
erature. 

The following are characteristic examples of the 
brief quotations censured by Kuenen : Heb. I : 5, 
from Ps. 2 : 7 : " Thou art my Son, this day have I be- 
gotten thee." Heb. 1 : 6, perhaps from the Septua- 
gint of Deut. 32 : 43 : " And let all the angels of 
God worship him." Heb. 2 : 12, from Ps. 22 : 22 : 
" I will declare thy name unto my brethren ; in the 
midst of the congregation will I sing thy praise." 
62 



FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 63 

Heb. 2:13, from Isa. 8 : 18 : " Behold I and the 
children which God hath given me." When we read 
such quotations as these we naturally ask, Whence do 
they come ? Finding their sources, we ask again, With 
what right are they referred to Christ or to his people ? 
And again, W T hy was not the whole context quoted 
in each case, so that every reader of the text might 
judge for himself of the propriety of the use made of 
it ? Upon reflection it becomes manifest, however, that 
to have quoted the whole context in every such case 
would have swelled the New Testament to immoderate 
proportions and thus have prevented its general use. 
It would also have rendered the argument too compli- 
cated and tortuous for our comprehension. Moreover, 
in order to render the reasoning of the sacred writer 
sufficient for the demands of the captious reader, it 
would have been necessary at every point to explain at 
length the relation of the Old Testament to the New 
as its ground-work, its seed-form, its prototype, its 
prophecy. 

Let us now examine the last of these examples as 
an illustration of what I have just said. The context 
which it is necessary to understand embraces several 
chapters, which of course could not be brought into the 
epistle without violating all laws of literary proportion 
and rendering the argument insufferably tedious. Then 
again, the original passage refers to Christ and his peo- 
ple only as the germ in the soil refers to the plant 
which it is to unfold ; and, to satisfy Kuenen and the 
critics of his school, it would be necessary to express 
this view and to justify it, in connection with the quo- 
tation, though not for the satisfaction of such readers 



64 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

as the New Testament writer immediately addressed, 
to whom the Old Testament was a familiar book of 
prophecy containing in many places typical foreshad- 
owings of Christ and his church. Still further, only half 
a sentence is quoted ; its grammatical form in Greek, 
as in English, shows its incompleteness, and challenges 
the mind at once to think of the remaining words and 
of their setting in the prophecy. 

Frequently long passages from the Old Testament 
are compressed in the New by the omission of portions, 
and the retention only of enough to show their distinct 
relation to the matter brought forward by the writer. 
Instances of such abridgement are found at John 12 : 
40 ; Acts 2 : 25-28 ; 8 : 32, 33 ; 15:16; Heb. 2 : 6. 
At Heb. 4 : 3, two lines only from Ps. 95 : 11 are 
quoted, because the longer passage, on which the whole 
argument turns, has been produced in the preceding 
chapter. This kind of compression is common in all 
literatures. With us, it is often indicated by dots to 
show where portions of the passage have been omitted ; 
but frequently we employ no such device. None was 
employed by the writers of antiquity, for no punctua- 
tion of any sort had been invented. 

It is not to such compression, however, that the chief 
objection is made, but to the quotation of brief phrases 
designed to bring to mind the longer passages from 
which they are taken. 

The same thing occurs in the quotations of all liter- 
atures, and the reader is supposed to know the con- 
text for himself, or to turn to it, if unfamiliar with 
it. A few examples will prove this statement, as far 
as it concerns ancient literature, and show that the 



FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 65 

writers of the New Testament quote quite like other 
writers. 

The first is from Plato's " Symposium," section 174. 
Jowett translates it thus : 

" I am afraid, Socrates," said Aristodemus, "that I may be the 
inferior person, who, like Menelaus in Homer, 

To the feasts of the wise unbidden goes. 

But I shall s'ay that I was bidden by you, and then you will 
have to make the excuse." 

" Two going together, 

he replied, in Homeric fashion, "may invent an excuse by the 
way." 

What is the story in Homer from which these quota- 
tions are made ? What light does it throw upon the 
situation of the speakers in the dialogue? The Greek 
readers of the " Symposium," familiar with Homer from 
the cradle, would know at once. But the majority of 
modern readers must turn to the " Iliad " before they 
can answer these questions, and those who do so, gain a 
higher appreciation of the ready wit with which Socrates 
replies to his friend. The literary art of Plato, in deal- 
ing thus with the great poem, is perfect. Every writer 
must assume that the reader possesses a certain degree 
of intelligence, and every reader must lend the writer 
the assistance of his intelligence. Human life has its 
limits, and if all quotations and literary allusions had to 
be accompanied by elaborate explications, no literature 
could be mastered within the few short years allotted 
to us on earth. 

If we turn over a single leaf of the " Symposium," we 
come to another instance of the same kind : 



66 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Eryximachus proceeded as follows : "I will begin," he said, 
" after the manner of Melanippe in Euripides, 

' Not mine the word ' 

which I am about to speak, but that of Phaedrus. For he is in 
the habit of complaining that, whereas other gods have poems 
and hymns made in their honor, the great and glorious god, Love, 
has no encomiast among all the poets who are so many." 

Here we have but half a line. The whole line is quoted 
by another Greek writer, but the context is lost, and 
with it our ability to enjoy the wit of the speaker. 

The first quotation in the " Laws " presents a contrast 
to these. Here the speaker quotes a part of a line from 
Tyrtaeus, a Spartan citizen enamored of war : 

I sing not, I care not about any man. 

After this fragmentary quotation, the speaker contin- 
ues, giving in his own prose the substance of what fol- 
lows in the poem. He then tells us something about 
the views of war which the poet held, inferring from 
his expressions that he sings the praises of foreign war 
and not civil. Here enough of the context is sketched 
in to enable us to form some conception, though a dim 
one, of the argument of the poem. 

There are in Plato probably as many literary allusions 
and brief quotations which suppose in the reader an ac- 
quaintance with the context, as of this latter kind, 
which is accompanied with an explanation of the con- 
text. 

Jowett says that their fragmentary character is a 
striking feature of the quotations from the poets in 
Aristotle : " They are often cited in half-lines only, 



FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 67 

which would be unintelligible unless the context was 
present to the mind. We are reminded that the Greek 
youth, like some of our own, were in the habit of com- 
mitting to memory entire poets." A very few instances 
from Aristotle will suffice to illustrate his custom. 

In his " Rhetoric," book I., section 6, we have three 
examples on a single page. " It is a general rule that 
whatever our enemies desire or rejoice at, the opposite 
of this is clearly beneficial to ourselves. Hence the 
point of the lines, 

Sure Priam would rejoice." 

Here the whole passage of the " Iliad," beginning at I., 
255, is suggested: it is the speech in which Nestor 
tries to reconcile Achilles and Agamemnon. 

Immediately afterward we have the words of the 
"Iliad," II., 176: 

Yea, after Priam's heart ; 

and of the " Iliad," II., 298 : 

'Tvvere shame to tarry long. 

Welldon says of these quotations : " The point lies 
not in the mere words quoted, but in the context." 

In his treatise on " The Learned Retained in Great 
Families," section 5, Lucian quotes from the "Theog- 
ony" of Hesiod, line 179 : 

For every man by poverty subdued. 

The line itself says little to the purpose of the author, 
and it is quoted only because it is the opening of a 



68 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

long passage on the evils of poverty, of which he would 
remind the reader. Tooke writes : " Lucian quotes 
only a few words as from a common-place saying. And 
if I were to subjoin in a note all that dear Theognis says 
concerning poverty in the passage referred to, perhaps 
the reader would not thank me for my trouble." 

In his "Oration on the Departure of Sallust," Julian 
quotes three words from the " Iliad," XL, 401 : 

Ulysses was alone. 

He says that he is reminded of these words by his own 
situation since Sallust has gone from him. Bat he is 
thinking of the whole passage, which tells how Diomed 
was wounded by Paris and thus compelled to quit 
the field, leaving Ulysses unsupported in the fight. 
This is evident from the next sentence, in which he 
speaks of 

the darts which have been launched at you by sycophants ; 
or rather at me through you ; as thinking no method so certain 
as that of depriving me, if possible, of the society of a faithful 
friend, an alert defender, and a sharer, with the utmost alacrity, 
in all my dangers. 

In the seventy- fourth letter of Julian, he writes to 
Libanius about a certain Aristophanes as follows : 

After this, perhaps you may ask, why we have not placed his 
affairs in a more prosperous state, and removed every inconveni- 
ence attending his disgrace ? 

When two go together, 

You and I will confer ; for you are worthy to be consulted. 

Here, as in Plato, these few words from the " Iliad " 



FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 69 

are intended to suggest the whole story to which they 
belong. 

In the letter of Gallus to Julian, his brother, he com- 
mends highly the piety of Julian, saying : 

You are zealously employed in houses of prayer, and can 
hardly be removed from the tombs of the martyrs, but are en- 
tirely attached to our worship. I must apply to you that expres- 
sion of Homer : 

Shoot thus. 

The two words quoted are from the "Iliad," VIIL, 282, 
the address of Agamemnon to Teucer, who was slaugh- 
tering the Trojans with his arrows. The king cried 
with admiration : 

Thus ever shoot, and become the glory of thy people. 

Gallus intends to remind his princely brother of the 
whole passage, and to say : " Continue this devotion, 
and become the glory of the church, the leader of the 
people in religious things." 

In " Strabo," book IX., section 24, is the following 
instance : 

In the Theban territory are Therapnae and Teumessus, which 
Antimachus has extolled in a long poem, enumerating excellences 
which they had not : 

There is a hillock exposed to the winds. 
But the lines are well known. 

These instances from Greek literature have been taken 
almost at random. If we turn to Cicero, the chief Latin 
writer of prose, we find the same custom. In the 
" Tusculan Disputations," book II., section 8, he argues, 



/O QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

against Epicurus, that pain is a real and serious evil. 
He endeavors to prove this by an appeal to the poets. 
He quotes first from Sophocles, who represents even 
Hercules as lamenting his torture in the tunic which 
Deianira had put on him. He quotes next from 
^Eschylus, who depicts the agonies of Prometheus 
bound. In both cases he reproduces the passages at 
such length that no one can question their bearing on 
the subject of the debate. 

But in the " Academics," book II., section 16, we have 
a pair of quotations of the other kind. Here his asser- 
tion is, that illusions of the senses, such as those of 
dreams and intoxication and madness, may be distin- 
guished from the genuine testimony of the senses by 
their lack of clearness. For proof he appeals to En- 
nius, who, "when he had a dream, related it in this 

way : 

The poet Homer seemed to stand before me. 

And again in the Epicharmus he says : 

For I seemed to be dreaming and laid in the tomb. 

The reasoning of Cicero is this : One who remembers 
to have seen a man in reality does not say, " I seemed 
to see him " ; but one who remembers to have seen a 
man in a dream, is obliged by the obscurity of the 
vision to say that he seemed to see him. The lines 
from Ennius are quoted to prove that the theory put 
forth by Cicero was held by this great poet. We can- 
not be certain, however, that the lines possess any value 
as evidence. It is very possible that Ennius used the 
word " seem " not because the figures of the dream 



FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 7 1 

lacked clearness, but only because he reflected after- 
ward when awake that they lacked substantial reality, 
and therefore were only a seeming, however clear. 
The context has perished and left us in ignorance of 
the meaning. The ancient readers of Cicero would be 
in no doubt on this subject, for from the one quoted 
line they would recall the entire context. 

In his letter to his brother Quintus, I., 2, Cicero re- 
cords the arrival at Rome of Statius. The people, 
who expected to behold a man of heroic mold, were 
disappointed with his appearance. After this state- 
ment there follow five Greek words, of no significance 
in themselves, but highly significant as part of the long 
passage in the " Odyssey," IX., 513, in which Polyphe- 
mus expresses his disappointment with Ulysses, the 
whole of which Cicero wishes to bring to the mind of 
his brother. 

In his first letter to Atticus, Cicero speaks of his 
candidacy for the consulship, and says that his ambi- 
tion to gain the office may be forgiven, and then quotes, 
without explanation, the " Iliad," XXII., 159: 

No common victim, no ignoble ox. 

We can only conjecture as to the applicability of the 
line to the case of Cicero, till we turn to the context, 
and find that it is the story of the pursuit of Hector 
around the walls of Troy by Achilles, who ran " with 
fiery speed" because the prize of the race was, "no 
common victim, no ignoble ox," but a great warrior 
and great glory. The quotation becomes pregnant 
with- meaning when we read it in the light of its con- 
text, and learn that the race of Cicero for the consul- 



72 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

ship engaged all his energies because the prize was so 
worthy of his utmost endeavors. 

In his letter to Atticus, II. , 25, Cicero instructs his 
friend to say for him some complimentary and pleasing 
things to Varro, who was then in power. " For, as 
you are aware," he adds, " he is of a singular disposi- 
tion." Then follow three Greek words from a furious 
speech in the " Andromache " of Euripides, denouncing 
the Spartans as " crafty in counsel, kings of liars, con- 
coctors of evil plots, crooked, and thinking nothing 
soundly, but all things tortuously." The three words 
quoted by Cicero are designed to recall the whole pas- 
sage, and to intimate to his friend that it is as good a 
description of Varro as of the Spartans. 

He continues the same subject, and adds: "But I 
do not forget this precept." Then follow three Greek 
words, which of themselves express no precept and 
make no sense. They are the opening words of line 
393 of the "Phoenician Maidens" of Euripides, and 
are designed to recall the whole line, which is a pre- 
cept of patience : 

It is necessary to bear with the follies of those in power. 

In his sixteenth letter to Atticus, Cicero speaks of a 
letter from his friend Quintus, and says that the begin- 
ning and the end differed widely. He then throws in 
three Greek words : 

In front, a lion; but behind — 

We should form an entirely wrong conception of his 
full meaning if we failed to turn to Homer's descrip- 
tion of the Chimaera, the whole of which Cicero in- 



FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 73 

tends to apply to the letter of Quintus as an illustra- 
tion of its discordant character. 

All our modern literatures are so full of these frag- 
mentary quotations that it seems superfluous to pro- 
duce instances from them. No reader can fail to find 
examples for himself. Perhaps half the mottoes at the 
head of the numbers of the " Spectator " are of this 
class. 

The New Testament, in presenting to us a few such 
fragmentary quotations, shows only that its authors 
were moved by instincts and complied with customs of 
expression common to all writers of all ages and 
nations. 



G 



IV 



EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 



1 SHALL consider in this chapter the statement that 
the authors of the New Testament sometimes alter 
the language of the Old with the obvious design of aid- 
ing their arguments. The principal instances of this 
kind which have been adduced are Matt. 2:6; 3:3; 
11 : 10; 15 : 8, 9 ; Luke 2 : 23 ; John 2:17; 19 : 37 ; 
Acts 2 : 17-21 ; 7 142, 43. Let us examine these 
examples. 

At Matt. 2 : 6, Micah 5 : 2 is quoted, with several 
changes adapted to bring out the real meaning. The 
prophet writes : " But thou Beth-lehem Ephrathah, 
which art little to be among the thousands of Judah, 
out of thee shall one come forth unto me that is to be 
ruler in Israel." In the quotation we have " land of 
Judah," instead Ephrathah " ; " art in no wise least," 
instead of "art little"; "princes," instead of "thou- 
sands " ; " be shepherd of," instead of " be ruler " ; with 
the words "for" and "my people" and "a governor," 
inserted, and the words "unto me " omitted. Some of 
these changes may be due tc memory-quoting ; but 
others are clearly exegetical. Thus the word " Ephra- 
thah " was antique and obscure, and the words " land of 
Judah " took its place as an explanation. Further, says 
Toy : 

The form of the sentence is changed in order to bring out what 
was conceived to be the prophet' s implied thought, that Bethlehem, 
74 



EXEGETlCAL PARAPHRASE 75 

though insignificant in size, had been, by its selection to be the 
birthplace of the Messiah, raised to a lofty position in Israel : 
hence the insertion of the negative, " art in no wise least," and 
of the "for," to show that the following assertion contains the 
ground of the city's greatness. 

This in fact is the real thought of the prophet, as all 
interpreters hold. The entire passage was regarded by 
the Jews as Messianic, as we see here and at John 7 : 
42, and in the Targum. It has the coloring of tem- 
poral victory and temporal sovereignty, because these 
were types of spiritual blessings, as I shall show in our 
ninth chapter. The substitution of "be shepherd of," 
for " be ruler in," is made in order to give the substance 
of the next verse but one in the prophecy : " He shall 
stand, and shall feed his flock " ; and it illustrates again 
the manner of quoting discussed in our sixth chapter. 

In one instance an alteration made by the Septuagint 
is adopted by the New Testament writer apparently 
because it brings out clearly the relation of the passage, 
as a prophecy, to its fulfillment. It is at Matt. 3 : 3, 
where Isa. 40 : 3 is quoted as follows : 

The voice of one crying in the wilderness, 
Make ye ready the way of the Lord, 
Make his paths straight. 

Broadus comments on this quotation as follows : 

In the Hebrew, the accents indicate and the parallelism 
proves, that "in the wilderness " belongs to "make ye ready " ; 
and so the Revised version of Isaiah. Matthew, as also Mark 
and Luke, follows the Septuagint in connecting that phrase 
with "crying," and in omitting the parallel phrase "in the 
desert" from the next clause. This change does not affect the 
substantial meaning, and it makes clearer the real correspond- 



76 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

ence between the prediction and the fulfillment, " preaching in 
the wilderness," verse 1, "crying in the wilderness," verse 3. 
It might without impropriety be supposed that Matthew himself 
altered the phraseology to bring out this correspondence, but in 
many similar cases it is plain that he has simply followed the 
familiar Septuagint. 

At Matt. 11 : 10, Mark 1 : 2, and Luke 7 : 27, is a 
quotation from Mai. 3 : 1, as follows : 

Behold I send my messenger before thy face, 
Who shall prepare thy way before thee. 

Thus the New Testament speaks, in the third person. 
But in the original passage Jehovah speaks in the first 
person : " Behold, I send my messenger, and he shall 
prepare the way before me." Thus Jehovah predicts 
that he himself shall come to Israel after first sending 
a herald to prepare the way, according to Oriental cus- 
tom. The writers of the New Testament held that 
Johovah really came in Christ, and that the pre- 
diction of the advent of Jehovah was fulfilled in the 
advent of Christ, and they introduced such verbal 
changes in the passage as served to bring out its real 
meaning, saying "thy face," instead of "my face," and 
" thy way," instead of " a way before me." The changes 
are strictly exegetical. 

At Matt. 15 : 8, 9, there is a quotation from Isa. 29 : 
13, with the adoption of a change effected by the Sep- 
tuagint, apparently because it sets forth more clearly 
the real meaning of the prophet than a close rendering 
of his language would have done. The Hebrew reads : 
" And their fear toward me is the commandment of 
men, taught." That is, their religion is merely tra- 



EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE JJ 

ditional, and not a thing derived from the word of God 
and their own experience of his grace. Instead of this, 
the Septuagint has, " But in vain do they worship me, 
teaching precepts of men and teachings." Matthew, 
and also Mark (7 : 7), slightly modify the Septuagint, 
and say, 

In vain do they worship me, 

Teaching doctrines the precepts of men. 

Says Broadus : 

This not only improves the phraseology of the Septuagint, but 
brings out the prophet's thought more clearly than would be 
done by a literal translation of the Hebrew, for Isaiah means to 
distinguish between a worship of God that is taught by men, and 
that which is according to the teaching of God's word. 

At Luke 2:23, the law of consecration of the first- 
born of males is quoted from Exod. 13 : 2, in such a 
manner as to explain it. The law is this : " Sanctify 
unto me all the first-born, whatsoever openeth the womb 
among the children of Israel, both of man and of 
beast : it is mine." In the twelfth and fifteenth verses 
of the same chapter the first-born are limited to the 
males, and in quoting the earlier verse, Luke brings 
the word "male " into it exegetically, to save space and 
express the real meaning of the passage. 

At John 2 : 1 7, Ps. 69 : 9 is quoted : 

The zeal of thine house shall eat me up. 

The Hebrew verb is in the perfect tense, as is also 
that of the Septuagint Greek, while the evangelist, ac- 
cording to the best reading, changes it to a future. 
This is paraphrase to express the real meaning of the 



78 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

quotation, which, like many other parts of the psalm, 
are plainly Messianic and hence predictive. The change 
brings out the predictive character of the passage. 

At John 19 : 37, Zech. 12 : 10 is quoted as follows : 
" Again another Scripture saith, They shall look on 
him whom they pierced." The prophet wrote, how- 
ever, " They shall look unto me whom they have 
pierced." It was God who spoke through the prophet, 
declaring, that the Jews had pierced him, and John 
would teach us by his change of the pronoun that it 
was the same God whom they pierced on the cross, 
slaying the Messiah through the agency of the Roman 
soldier, their official and chosen representative. " The 
evangelist," says Wright, " is not quoting the passage 
in the words of the prophet, but rather giving the pur- 
port of it from his own point of view." He expresses 
thus his identification of the Jehovah of the Old Tes- 
tament with the Christ of the New. That the passage 
is a prediction of the event to which the evangelist ap- 
plies it, as well as the sufferings of Christ in the larger 
sense, is evident from the Hebrew word for "pierced," 
which occurs in ten other places, and " is nowhere 
used," Wright declares, "except in the literal accepta- 
tion of piercing or stabbing, and generally to the effect 
of slaying." Also the verb for "mourn" is the one 
which "properly expresses mourning for the dead." 

How can Jehovah be pierced ? This question has 
occasioned great difficulty, which writers have sought 
to overcome by various devices. The translation of 
the Septuagint, " They shall look to me because they 
mocked," is supposed to be based on the idea that the 
heart of Jehovah was pierced by the unbelieving words 



EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 79 

of his disobedient people. Calvin, Rosenmiiller, Ge- 
senius, and others, refer the piercing to the obstinate 
and provoking sins of the nation, a metaphorical sense 
which the Hebrew word nowhere bears. Keil sup- 
poses the angel of Jehovah to be pierced, instead of 
Jehovah himself ; but for this guess there is no kind of 
support. Equally conjectural is the suggestion of Hit- 
zig, that Jehovah identifies himself with the prophet, 
and speaks of himself as pierced because Zechariah 
was set at naught. Toy would remove the difficulty 
by translating the passage thus : " They shall look to 
me in respect to him whom they have pierced ; " that 
is, " the people of Jerusalem shall exhibit a kindly and 
prayerful spirit ; and, in their sorrow for their slain 
brethren of Judah, shall look to me, their God, for com- 
fort." According to Wright, Kimchi and others have 
advocated this view. But all these violent expedients 
are unnecessary. The prophecy, in so far as it relates 
to the piercing, was strictly fulfilled in Christ, in whose 
sufferings and death Jehovah was pierced. That part 
of the prophecy which relates to the penitence of Israel 
is yet to be fulfilled, when " they shall look " with 
mourning "upon him whom they pierced." 

Toy is so fully assured of the view which he adopts 
that he makes it the ground of an adverse criticism of 
the evangelist, whose " reference to the piercing of 
Jesus' side," he says, "is based on a translation and 
exegesis of the Hebrew that cannot be maintained." 
The "translation and exegesis" adopted by Toy, how- 
ever, are ignored or rejected by the great mass of He- 
brew scholars, among whom I may mention the revisers 
of the English Old Testament, Wright, Meyer, who 



80 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

calls the construction "tortuous," Chambers, in the 
Lange commentaries, Drake, in the Speaker's Com- 
mentary, Hengstenberg, who pronounces the theory on 
which it is based " a pure invention of the empirical 
grammarians," Briggs, Calvin, Rosenmuller, Gill, 
Maurer, Luthardt, Hitzig, Keil, and Ewald. Toy 
seeks to support his construction of the Hebrew sen- 
tence by an appeal to Ewald' s Grammar. * But if the 
rule thus referred to leads to the construction adopted 
by Toy, Ewald himself did not know it, for in his 
translation and commentary he gives us the construc- 
tion found in the Gospel by John, though not the pro- 
noun employed there. 

The exegesis of Toy is not made good, even by his 
own construction of the sentence. If the prophet 
means that the Jews shall mourn " for their slain 
brethren of Judah," how can he repeatedly and uni- 
formly employ the singular, " him," for this innumer- 
able multitude ? To say that Israel shall " look to God 
in respect to him whom they pierced," and shall 
"mourn for him," is to employ inadequate expressions, 
if they refer to the sorrow of the people for the 
slaughter, not of one, but of thousands. 

The Common version of Zechariah reads : " They 
shall look upon me." The Revised version has "unto 
me." The Hebrew, as Toy says, may mean either. 
He adds that "unto" alone is applicable here, because 
the speaker is God, and men are not supposed to look 
"upon" him, but only "unto" him in prayer. The 
moment we regard the passage as a direct prophecy of 

1 I 333, a, footnote 3. 



KXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE Si 

Christ, however, this objection disappears ; for men 
looked "upon" God in Christ, who himself declared: 
" He that hath seen me hath seen the Father." But, 
while the objection of Toy to the translation "upon" 
is not valid, a careful consideration of the meaning of 
the prophet will lead us to prefer " unto." The " look- 
ing " of which he speaks is not mere physical gazing 
with the eyes of the body ; it is spiritual ; it is behold- 
ing in penitence, in faith, in gratitude, in love ; as is 
evident from the added statement that "they shall 
mourn for him as one mourneth for his only son." 
This kind of looking is expressed better by the word 
"unto," than by the word "upon," as in the New Tes- 
tament phrase, "looking unto Jesus." But if "unto" 
is used in the passage as it stands in the Old Testa- 
ment, it should be used in the passage as it is quoted 
in the Gospel by John. The Greek expression, exactly 
like the Hebrew, is one that may mean either " upon " 
or "unto." Our revisers have created an unnecessary 
difference between the Old Testament and the New by 
writing " unto " in the former and " upon " in the lat- 
ter. The word " upon " in the Gospel suggests that 
the evangelist considered the prophecy fulfilled in the 
mere physical gazing, by those who slew Christ, upon 
his pierced body. But the Apostle John, the greatest 
literary genius of his age, profound, poetic, mystic, 
spiritual, would have been the last man to give such a 
shallow interpretation to the prophecy. He utterly 
abandons the Septuagint form of it, and adheres closely 
to the Hebrew, from which he departs in but a single 
word, where the change is useful as an exegesis of the 
passage. But his close adherence to the Hebrew and 



SZ QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

his exegetical change of this single word, show that he 
had studied the passage carefully. He must therefore 
have understood it to predict the repentance of those 
whose sins pierced the body as well as the soul of the 
Son of God. He must have intended to find in it an 
event yet in the future, the looking of the Jews in 
penitential mourning "unto him whom they pierced." 
His choice of a Greek expression for "unto" which 
is different from the Septuagint, and exactly coexten- 
sive with the Hebrew expression in its range of pos- 
sible meanings in the connection in which he employs 
it, is still another evidence of his care in translating 
and interpreting the prophetic sentence. 

To sum up our discussion. The exegesis of John is 
based on a straightforward and natural construction of 
the Hebrew text, and on his perception of the divinity 
of Jesus ; while other views are induced by a certain 
reluctance to recognize the passage as a direct Mes- 
sianic prediction, or to recognize Jehovah in Christ ; or 
by some other supposed polemic convenience. If we 
consider the passage as a direct prophecy of Christ, 
we account for every feature of it ; but all other hy- 
potheses require us to do it some violence. 

The quotation at Acts 2 : 17-21 of Joel 2 : 28-32, 
illustrates still further the custom of changing a pas- 
sage to bring out its real meaning. The apostle places 
"saith God " near the beginning of the passage, to 
call attention at once to the source of the prophecy, 
and prepare the mind to listen to it with proper rever- 
ence. The prophet has "afterward," which the apos- 
tle changes to "in the last days," a phrase that, as 
Hackett w T rites, "denotes always in the New Testa- 



EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 83 

ment the age of the Messiah, which the Scriptures 
represent as the world's last great moral epoch." The 
apostle's phrase, having this uniform reference, ex- 
plains the real sense of the prophet's phrase, for the 
passage is a direct prediction of the Messianic age, to 
which the prophet refers when he says " afterward." 
The other changes have no special significance, and may 
be the result of the memory-quoting discussed in our 
second chapter. 

The last of these passages is found at Acts 7 : 42, 
43, where Amos 5 : 25-27 is quoted. Instead of the 
Septuagint reading, "the figures which ye made for 
yourselves," Stephen says, " the figures which ye made 
to worship them," thus bringing into prominence the 
real sense of the passage, which is a charge of idol- 
atry. Toy says that the substitution of " beyond 
Babylon" for " beyond Damascus " is an inadvertence, 
or a scribal error, which arose from a recollection of 
the Babylonian captivity. But it seems to me only 
another change introduced designedly to interpret the 
passage. When Amos wrote, about 770 b. c, the 
Assyrians were but little known, and hence the prophet 
told the people that they should be carried away " be- 
yond Damascus," using the most impressive phrase 
which they would be able to understand. When 
Stephen quoted the passage, he could do so in the light 
of history ; and it was then known that the prophet 
had referred to the Babylonian exile. 

From our examination of these passages, the state- 
ment with which this chapter opens is amply justified ; 
the writers of the New Testament, in quoting from the 
Old, sometimes change its language with the obvious in- 



84 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

tention of aiding their argument. It must be added, how- 
ever, that no changes are made for the purpose of inject- 
ing a meaning into the original passage ; in every such 
case the New Testament writer does but seek to brine: 
out more clearly the real thought of the Old Testa- 
ment writer ; if he exchanges one word or phrase for 
another, he does so for exegetical purposes ; and, with- 
out exception, the view which he takes of the quota- 
tion is justified when we study it fairly from his point 
of view. These changes, therefore, are aids to the 
understanding of the Old Testament, as well as to the 
belief of the New. 

Moreover, these changes are exactly such as we find 
in all literatures. They are so common that we 
give them a special name, and call them paraphrase. 
Webster defines paraphrase as " a re-statement of a text, 
passage, or work, expressing the meaning of the original 
in another form, generally for the sake of its clearer and 
fuller exposition." Dryden says that " in paraphrase 
the author's words are not so strictly followed as his 
sense." Wherever we find paraphrase in literature, 
and it is universal, we find the exact parallel of the 
Scriptures now under review. 

I do not refer, when I say this, to the many volumes 
which consist wholly of paraphrase, like Stier's 
"Reden Jesu," Geikie's "Words of Christ," Erasmus' 
" Paraphrase of the Gospels," Pope's " Iliad," Trol- 
lope's " Commentaries of Caesar," and Fallue's " Ana- 
lyse Raisonnee." I shall produce numerous instances 
strictly like those of the New Testament, and shall 
show by these examples that it is a common custom to 
quote with an exegetical change of language, the inser- 



EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 85 

tion of a word or phrase, or the substitution of one 
word or phrase for another, to bring out the sense 
which the writer discovers in the passage quoted. I 
shall appeal to books readily accessible to the reader, 
where quotations of the kind now before us are so nu- 
merous that I have found some difficulty in limiting 
my selection and choosing those which I reproduce 
rather than a multitude of others equally pertinent. 

Mansel, in his " Limits of Religious Thought," page 
55, quotes Luke 24 : 5, 6, as follows: "Why seek ye 
the living among the dead? Christ is not here." In 
the same work, page 120, he quotes Ps. 22 : 9, as 
follows : " Thou art he who took me out of my mother's 
womb : thou wast my hope when I hanged yet upon my 
mother's breasts." 

Guthrie, in his " Gospel in Ezekiel," page 379, quotes 
2 Cor. 12:9 in this form to show clearly that the 
" weakness" spoken of is that of man: " My grace 
shall be sufficient for thee, and my strength made per- 
fect in your weakness." 

Wayland, in his "Moral Science," page 157, quotes 
Luke 1 7 : 9, as follows : " Doth he thank that servant 
because he hath done the things that were commanded 
him ? I suppose not." The change here is made in 
order to bring out the thought obscured to the com- 
mon reader by the antique verb " trow." 

Dr. A. J. Gordon, in his "Ministry of Healing," page 
194, quotes Phil. 3:21, omitting the phrase "our vile 
body," and substituting for it the phrase "the body of 
our humiliation," thus bringing forth the real meaning 
of the apostolic writer : " Who shall fashion anew the 
body of our humiliation that it may be conformed to the 



86 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

body of his glory." On page 196 of the same book, he 
quotes thus from the Lord's Prayer : " Deliver us from 
the evil one." Both these exegetical changes were to 
appear two years later in the Canterbury revision. 

Sears, in his " Fourth Gospel the Heart of Christ," 
has many such exegetical alterations. On page 272 he 
reproduces in the following form the words uttered by 
John at the baptism of Christ : " I have more need to 
be baptized by thee." On page 309 the words spoken 
by Christ to Nicodemus appear as follows : '* If I 
tell you of those heavenly things you will not be- 
lieve them, for you do not understand the earthly 
things that represent them and image them forth. 
You stick in the letter, and cannot rise out of it." 

Conybeare and Howson's " Life and Letters of St. 
Paul" has many similar examples of exegetical para- 
phrase. Thus on page 6 of Vol. I., Ps. 147 : 20 is re- 
produced in the following form : " He dealt not so with 
any nation ; neither had the heathen knowledge of his 
laws." In the same volume, page 42, Ps. 78 : 5-7 
appears with several explanatory alterations : 

"The Lord made a covenant with Jacob, and gave 
Israel a law, which he commanded our forefathers to 
teach their children ; that their posterity might know 
it, and the children which are yet unborn ; to the intent 
that when they come up they might shew their children 
the same ; that they might put their trust in God, and 
not forget the works of the Lord, but keep his com- 
mandments." 

In the same volume, page 54, Ps. 122 14 is quoted 
with a change of " unto the testimony of Israel " for 



EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 87 

"to testify unto Israel," which the writer evidently re- 
gards as a better translation. 

Ruskin, "Modern Painters," Vol. V., page 149, re- 
produces Ps. 19 : 2-4 in this form, making it express 
what he regards as its real meaning : 

"•Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night 
showeth knowledge. They have no speech nor language, 
yet without these their voice is heard. Their rule has 
gone out throughout the earth, and their words to the 
end of the world." 

The writings of Dawson are full of these paraphrases. 
In "The Origin of the World," page 14, he gives Heb. 
11:3 this form : " By faith we understand that the 
ages of the world were constituted by the Word of 
God, so that the visible things were not made of those 
which appear." On page 100 of the same book, Gen. 
1 : 2 is given as follows : " And the earth was desolate 
and empty, and darkness was upon the surface of the 
deep ; and the Spirit of God moved on the surface of 
the waters." 

Dr. William M. Taylor, in his " Daniel the Beloved," 
page 22, quotes Rom. 14 : 21, inserting the words "to 
do " as exegetical of the verse : " It is good neither to 
eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor to do anything whereby 
a brother stumbleth or is made weak." On page 133 
of the same book, he quotes Dan. 7:25, and intro- 
duces exegetically the word " two " : " And they shall 
be given into his hands for a time, two times, and the 
dividing of time." 

The great sermon of Robert Hall on " The Senti- 
ments Proper to the Present Crisis," has for its text 



88 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Jer. 8:6: "I hearkened and heard, but they spake not 
aright : no man repented him of his wickedness, saying, 
What have I done ? every one turned to his course, as 
the horse rusheth into the battle." On the second 
page of the sermon, the text is quoted with a change of 
"rushed" for "turned." The change is made in order 
to produce a more vivid impression of the prophet's 
real thought : " Every one rushed to his course as the 
horse rusheth into the battle." 

Farrar, in his "Saintly Workers," page 113, quotes 
Rom. 13 : 14, taking out the words "to fulfill," and 
inserting the words " to subdue," thus completely re- 
versing the language of the last member of the verse, 
though still preserving its meaning : " Put ye on the 
Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh, 
to subdue the lusts thereof." 

I could produce a thousand such examples of exeget- 
ical quotation from English, German, and French liter- 
ature. They are not accompanied by any explanation, 
or even by any reference to the original Hebrew and 
Greek ; it is taken for granted that every intelligent 
reader is familiar with the Bible, will remark the 
changes for himself, and will understand the purpose 
of the author in making them. 

I now present a few examples from ancient litera- 
ture, to show that the same custom was known in the 
apostolic age. 

Lysias, in his funeral oration over those who fell at 
Salamis, speaks as follows : " Greece might well on 
that day go into mourning over yonder tomb, and la- 
ment for those that lie buried there, seeing that her 
own freedom and their valor are laid together in one 



EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 89 

grave." He is speaking near the tomb, and points to 
it. Aristotle quotes the sentence in his " Rhetoric," 
book 3, chapter 10, section 7. But, as he is not near 
the tomb, and cannot point to it, he alters the sen- 
tence in order to explain what tomb is referred to, 
and makes Lysias say: "Greece might well go into 
mourning over the tomb of those who died at Salamis, 
for her freedom and their valor were buried in one 
grave." 

In his treatise on "The Contradictions of the Stoics," 
section 47, the Stoic whom Plutarch is criticising quotes 
Homer as saying: 

Receive whatever ill or good 
He sends to each of you. 

Goodwin translates the verses thus, and appends this 
note : " The words ' or good ' are not found in Homer." 
The lines are from the " Iliad," XV., 109, and constitute 
a part of the angry speech of Juno against Jove. She tells 
the assembled gods that Jove is supreme, that resistance 
to him is vain, and that the only wise course is to re- 
ceive patiently " whatever ill he sends to each." This 
is to declare that Jove is the absolute dispenser of 
events, both good and evil, and the doctrine that he 
sends whatever good any one receives the Stoic regards 
as implied in the words, and as needing to be brought 
out distinctly by his exegetical alteration, which also 
serves to show the relevancy of the passage to the ar- 
gument. 

In Porphyry's " Life of Plotinus," section 22, in 
quoting the thirty-fifth line of Hesiod's "Theogony," 
he gives it as follows : 



90 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

But why do I speak these things of the oak or the rock ? 
5 AXXd ri'/j rauxa nepi dpuu y nepc nirp'qv Xiyztv ; 

But the word "Uyetv" is not in the original. Bouillet 
says in his note on the passage : " The word is implied 
in the verse of Hesiod, and Porphyry has expressed it 
for the sake of clearness." 

Philo, in his treatise on "The Changes of Scripture 
Names,'' section 46, runs together fragments of Gen. 
18 : 14 and 17 : 19, and changes the latter fragment 
exegetically, to exhibit his view of its meaning. He 
has been saying that the name Sarah stands for virtue 
or wisdom, and the name Isaac for laughter, or the joy 
that produces it, and he now quotes God as declaring : 
"And at that time shall wisdom bring forth joy to 
thee." 

In his treatise on the " Allegories of the Sacred 
Laws," book I., section 7, in the course of an argument 
to show that holiness pertains to the character, and not 
to mere external observances, he quotes Num. 6 : 9. 
The passage really refers to ceremonial uncleanness 
from contact with the dead, but he finds in it a deeper 
reference, and alters it accordingly : "If a sudden 
change comes over him, and pollutes his mind, he shall 
no longer be holy." 

In the same treatise, book III., section 63, he argues 
that the soul cannot be nourished by man, but only by 
God, and quotes as evidence the words of Jacob to 
Leah in Gen. 30 : 2, as follows, transforming them to 
bring out the meaning which he believes they contain : 
" Thou hast greatly erred ; for I am not in the place of 
God, who alone is able to open the womb of the soul." 



EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 91 

The Apocrypha of the Old Testament presents ex- 
egetical paraphrase among its most prominent features. 
"Generally," writes Churton, "the didactic portions of 
the Apocrypha may be regarded as a collection of par- 
aphrases upon passages of Holy Scripture, or of re- 
flections upon them." 



V 

COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS 

THE writers of the New Testament sometimes present 
in the form of a single passage an assemblage of 
phrases or sentences drawn from different sources. 
The following are all the instances of this kind which 
Toy adduces : 

Matt. 21 : 13; Mark 11 : 17; Luke 19 146; from 
Isa. 56 : 7 and Jer. 7:11. Luke 1 : 17; from Mai. 
3 : 1 and 4 : 5, 6. Acts 1 : 20 ; from Ps. 69 : 25 and 
109 : 8. Rom. 9 : 25, 26; from Hosea 2 : 23 and 1 : 
10. Rom. 9:33; 10 : 11; from Isa. 28 : 16 and 8 : 
14. Rom. 11:8; from Isa. 29 : 10 and Deut. 29 : 4. 
Rom. 11 : 26, 27 ; from Isa. 59 : 20, 21 and 27 : 9. 2 
Cor. 6 : 16; from Lev. 26 : 11, 12 and Ezek. 37 : 27. 
Gal. 3:8; from Gen. 12:3 and 18 : 18. 

Thus there are but few of these composite quotations 
in the New Testament. 

An examination of these passages will show that 
where the quotation is intended for proof, it is always 
composed of fragments which originally related to the 
subject of the argument ; and all of them except one 
or two are brought forward as proofs. An example of 
this kind is found in the appeal which our Lord made 
to the Old Testament to justify his expulsion of the 
traders from the temple, Matt. 21 : 13 ; Mark 11 : 17 ; 
Luke 19 : 46. He exclaimed: "It is written, My 
92 



COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS 93 

house shall be called a house of prayer : but ye make 
it a den of robbers." The first half of the quotation is 
from Isa. 56 : 7, and the second from Jer. 7:11. In 
both places the theme of the prophets is the temple 
and its right uses, so that the two members of the sen- 
tence are fitly united. In Mark, the first member is 
quoted in full : " My house shall be called a house of 
prayer for all the nations." It is probable that our Lord 
quoted it in this form ; for the dealers had their stalls 
in the court of the Gentiles, thus especially hindering the 
prayers of foreigners. There were two offenses : first, 
the turning the house of prayer into a house of mer- 
chandise, where cunning and chicane held rule, which 
is kept in mind chiefly by Matthew and Luke ; and 
secondly, the obstruction of Gentile worship, which 
Mark couples with the other. 

Some of the composite quotations will meet us in the 
other chapters of this book, where those few of them 
which have been made the ground of special objections 
will be studied, 

Censure of a general kind has been passed on all 
these quotations, simply because they are composite ; 
and in this chapter I shall answer the objection by 
showing that they follow a custom common to all 
ancient literatures. 

Thus Plato, in his " Ion," section 538, quotes the 
" Iliad " as follows : 

" Made with Pramnian wine ; and she grated cheese 
of goat's milk with a brazen knife, and at his side 
placed an onion, which gives relish to drink." 

There are no such successive lines in Homer ; as a 



94 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

whole, the extract is formed by Plato himself out of 
two passages, " Iliad," XL, 638, 630. Yet the quota- 
tion is quite correct, as both passages refer to the same 
thing. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Ocvuj TTpajULPStaj im d" aqetov 

XV7J TOpOV 

xvqart yaAxeirj' izapd de xpo- 

fJLUOV TZOTW OipOV. 



THE ORIGINAL. 
Line 638. 
^Ev tw pa oft xuxyae yovrj, 
eixula deffiLV, 

Line 630. 
yakxetov xdveov ini de xpo- 
ptuou, tcotw 6<fiov. 

In the " Republic," book III., section 389, Plato quotes 
from Homer as follows : 

The Greeks marched, breathing prowess, 
In silent awe of their leaders. 

The first clause of this sentence is from book III., line 
8, of the " Iliad " ; and the second from book IV., 
line 431. 



THE ORIGINAL. 
Book III., line 8. 
01 d" dp Haav acyrj fievea m>ei- 
ovrec *A%aeoi. 

Book IV., line 431. 
Iijfj deed 'tores a'rjfxdvTOpa^ 
dtupl de izdatv. 

In the " Republic," book III., section 391, Plato quotes 
Achilles as saying to Apollo : " Thou hast wronged 
me, O far-darter, most abominable of deities. Verily I 



THE QUOTATION. 

v laav tievea izveiovre^Ayaxoi, 
acyjj decdcozei; (Tytidvzopaz. 



COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS 



95 



would be even with thee, if I had only the power." 
This is from the "Iliad," book XXII., lines 15 and 20. 



ZCDV 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Line 15. 

* ' EfiXatpdq, fi\ 'Exdepye 

oX.ocozaze Tidvzwv. 

Line 20. 

s H a dv TcoaifiTjV, ec ptoc Suva 



/tfCfe 



:pecin. 



THE QUOTATION. 

* ' Efilaipac, fi exdepye, decov 

oXocoroLTe ndvTtov 
■q a dv Tcacrifiqv, el' poc Suva- 

piz, ye Tzapeirj. 



In Xenophon's " Memorabilia," book I., chapter 2, 
section 58, the lines quoted are from the "Iliad," II., 
188 and following, and 198 and following. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Lines 188, 189, 190, 191. 

'Ovzcva pev paGc/SjO. xal i$o- 

yov dvdpa xcyeir^ 
zbv <T dyavolz, enieaacv ip'/jzu- 

aaaxe Tzapaazd^' 
Aacubvc\ o'j ae ioexe xaxbv a>z 

decdiaaeadac- 
d// 1 auzo^ ts xddqao xal dX.- 

X,ooz Idpoe )mo>jz. 
Lines 198, 199, 200, 201, 202. 
a 0v d* au dvjpou r dvdpa idot 

fioocovzd t i<pe'jpoc, 
rbv axrjizrpu) eXdao.av.ev bpox- 

tyaaaxi zs pudcp- 
Aacpovc\ dzpepa^ rjao y xal 

dXXuov pi>0ov dxoue, 



THE QUOTATION. 

a Ovzcva pev ftaacXJ^a xal ezo%ov 

dvdpa xtyziq, 
zbv S* dyavotc, erteeaacv iprjzu- 

aaaxe Tiapaazd^' 
dacpovc ', 06 ae iocxe xaxbv a>z 

decdiaaeadac, 
dXJ a'jzoz ze xddr,ao xal dX- 

Xoi>z wp'je X.aou^. 
' Ov o au drjpoo z dud pa I'doc 

ftoocovzd r icpe'jpoc, 
zbv axrjzzzpii) eX.daaax.ev bpox- 

Xrjaaaxi ze pudcp' 
dacpovc\ dzpepaz y\ao, xal 

d)lcov uuOov dxoue, 



96 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 



oc aso (fsprspoi star au 
dTTToAs/ULOz xal avaXxc^, 

outs nor iv 7zoXkp.ii) ivap 
ptoc, out £vi ftouXrj. 



o? <rio (fipTSpot elar ou 6 s * 
dxToXspoz xal avahuq,, 

OUTS 7Z0T £V 710/JpLO) SVCLp'S- 
pioz, out sue ft 01) A?}. 



In Lucian's " Charon," section 22, the five lines from 
Homer run together as a continuous passage are, as 
Jacobitz says, l " brought together from various places, 
'Iliad,' IX., 319, 320; 'Odyssey,' X., 521; XL, 539." 



THE ORIGINAL. 
" Iliad," IX., 319, 320. 

'Ev ok iy Tcpfj y)pkv xaxbq, v)dk 

xal iadXoz' 
x&Tdav bpco^ o t dspybz dvrjp 

o ts TioXXd iopycoz. 
"Odyssey," X.,521. 
IJo/ld 3 k youvouadac vsxucov 

dpsvrpd xdpyva, 

"Odyssey," XI., 539. 
fohapaxpd ftcftcoaa xolt da(fo- 

SsXbv Xscucova. 



THE QUOTATION. 

KaTdav bpcoz o t aTupfioz 

d^r t p oc t F/lays Tupfiou, 
iv dk cjj TcpT] r Jpoz xpsuou 

t Wyapkpvcov 
dspaiTYj o looz Ostiooz ~dcz 

■ipxbpoio. 
ndvTEZ 3' slalv bpcoz vsxucov 

dpsvr { vd xdpyva, 
yupvoi ts ^tjpoi ts xav dtrcpo- 

3sXbv Xseacova. 



In Lucian's " Timon " we have a poetic quotation 
which Tooke has translated as follows : 

O gold, supreme delight of mortal eyes ! 
Like the flickering flame thou shinest bright, 
Resplendent thou by day and night ! 

The first line is from Euripides, " Fragments," 288 ; 
and the rest is a defective citation from the opening of 
Pindar's first Olympic ode. 

1 Jacobitz' " Lucian," Vol. I., p. 39. 



COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS 



97 



THE QUOTATION. 

~ Q Xpvae, dsguopa xdlhoTov 
Ppovocf 

aldofievov yap nop &re oca- 
7tp£7teiq xal uuxTcop xal fxed" 
fjpipav. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Euripides. 

*J? ipooh, deqiajpta xdXharov 

Ppozo7z. 

Pindar. 
AWbpevov nop 
lire diaurpiTree vuxtI pteydvopoc 
££o%a ttXoutoo. 

In his treatise on " Progress in Virtue," section 
II, Plutarch quotes inexactly two lines from Homer, 
and treats them as a single sentence. The first is from 
the "Odyssey," VI., 187, and the second from the 
» Odyssey," XXIV, 402. 



THE ORIGINAL. 
VI., 187. 

Ee7v' inec oure xaxw out 
OKfpovi (pcorl iocxaz. 
XXIV., 402. 

Ouli re xal fiala yaipz, 6eol 
ds roe oXftca dolev. 



THE QUOTATION. 
' 'Ettsc oLts xaxw out dappove 

(fcoTc iotxat;, 
obis ts xal piiya yatp£, deol 

vu toc oAftca doTev. 



In his "Conjugal Precepts," section 38, Plutarch 
quotes two lines from Homer, making a single sentence 
of them. They are from the Iliad, XIV, 205 and 209. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Line 205. 

Kai ay axpaa veixea Xuao). 

Line 209. 

Et$ euvyjv dvkaatfxi b/icod^uac 

(ftXoTTjTC. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Kai ay axpcTa veixea Xixrco 
e*C euvrjv dvkaaaa bpLOjdrjvou 
<pdoTiqTt. 



QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 



In his " Consolation to Apollonius," section 30, Plu- 
tarch quotes three lines from Homer, making a single 
sentence of them. The first and second are from the 
"Iliad," XXIII., 222; the last from the "Iliad," 
XVII., 37. 



THE ORIGINAL. 
XXIII., 222. 

c i?C ds TtaTrjp ob tlcuoo^ odb- 

perac darsa xaUov, 
vufxpioo, oars davcov dsdobz 

dxd%qas Toxrjau:. 

XVII., 37. ' 
^Ap'qxbv ds roxebac ybov xai 
izkvdoq, Idrfxaq,. 



THE QUOTATION. 

c i?C os Trarrjp ob Ttaidb^ odbps- 

rai darsa xaicov 
vi>fi(pioo, oc rs Oavoju dsdobz 

dxdyrjas tox?^, 
dppTj-bv ds roxsbai ybov xai 

-svdoz idqxs. 



In his " Consolation to Apollonius," section 26, Plu- 
tarch quotes Homer as saying : 

Whilst others may lament with weeping eyes, 
The darkness of the night doth them surprise. 

This is Goodwin's translation. The line in Plutarch is 
made up partly from the " Iliad," XXIII. , 109, and 
partly from the "Odyssey," I., 423. 



THE ORIGINAL. 
" Iliad," XXIIL, 109. 

Mopop.svoiai ds zolai (pdvq 
pododdxrulo^ 'Hwz. 
" Odyssey," I., 423. 

Tolot ds rspnopsvoiai pslaz 
ini eanspoz fjXOzv. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Mopopsvoiai ds rolai fisXaQ 
im ianspoq, rjXds. 



COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS 



99 



In the dissertation of Maximus Tyrius on "The In- 
stability of Pleasure," the following lines occur as a 
single sentence. I adopt Taylor's translation : 
Where rain and raging tempest are unknown, 
But a white splendor spreads its radiance round. 

They are from the " Odyssey " ; the first part is from 
IV., 566, and the second from VI., 44. 



THE QUOTATION. 

y E vd" dux i(JT out dp ystpwv 

TToXu^, OUTS 7ZOT bpftpCp 

SsusTar dXXd pdX' dcdprj 
7T£7iTaTac av£<peXoz, Xsuxirj d' 
s7icdidpop.su al'yXrj. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

IV., 566. 

Ou u«perbz, out dp ystpcuv 

7toXu$ outs tzot opftpoz. 

VI., 44- 

Asustcu outs %ed)v sTinziXva- 

tolc, aXXa pdX aidprj 
TTSTiTaTac dvsysXoz, Xsuxrj d' 
STitdsdpopsv alyXfj. 

In Cicero's " De Oratore," book II., section 80, the 
second quotation is from the " Andria " of Terence. 
"The line," says Wilkins, * is made up of the first half 
of verse 1 17 and the latter part of verse 128." A part 
of verse 129 also is used. 



THE ORIGINAL. 
Verse 117. 

Effertur ; imus. Interea 
inter mulieres, 

Verses 128 and 129. 

Procedit ; sequimur ; ad se 
pulcrum venimus ; 

In ignem posita est ; fletur. 
Interea haec soror. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Effertur, imus, ad sepul- 

crum venimus, 
In ignem imposita est. 



Willuns's " De Oratore," Vol. II., p. 355, note II. 



IOO QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

In the fifty-third letter of Seneca he describes a 
voyage during which he suffered so much from sea- 
sickness that, when the vessel came near its landing, 
he sprang into the water and waded ashore, not waiting 
"till," as Virgil says : 

Obvertunt pelago proras aut anchora de prora jaciatur. 
They turn the prow or cast anchor. 

The first part of the line, " Obvertunt pelago proras," 
is from the "^Eneid," VI., 3, and the second, " anchora 
de prora jaciatur," from the same poem, III., 277. 

In his eighty-second letter Seneca quotes Virgil as 
saying : 

Ossa super recumbans antro semesa cruento 
Sternum latrans exsangues territat umbras. 

The first of these lines is from the "y£neid," VIIL, 
297, and the second from another book of the same 
poem, VI., 401 = 

Philo gives us some instances of composite quota- 
tion. 

In his treatise entitled, " Who is the Heir of Di- 
vine Things," section 5, he cites Moses as saying : 
" From whence am I to get flesh to give to all this 
people, because they cry unto me ? Shall sheep and 
oxen be sacrificed, or shall all the fish of the sea be 
collected together to satisfy them ? " This quotation, 
apparently a continuous speech of Moses, is composed 
of sentences from two different speeches, found in 
Num. 11-13 an d 22. As the two speeches were made 
concerning the same matter, there was no impropriety 
in bringing the purport of both before the reader by 
thus joining together a few brief extracts. 



COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS IOI 

In the same treatise, section 46, he runs together 
fragments of Gen. 18 : 14 and 17 : 19 : " And at that 
time wisdom shall bring forth joy to thee," putting 
wisdom for Sarah and joy for Isaac, according to his 
custom of turning the Scriptures into allegory. 

In his treatise on " The Changes of Scripture 
Names," section 35, he runs together as a quotation 
parts of Gen. 32 : 25 and 31 : "The broader part of 
his thigh became torpid, on which he was lame." 

In his treatise on " The Allegories of the Sacred 
Laws," book III, section 3, he runs together parts of 
Num. 5 : 2, 3 and Deut 23 : 1 : 

Let them send forth from the holy soul every leper, 
and every one afflicted with foul disease, and every one 
who is impure in his soul, both male and female, and 
all mutilated persons, and all those who are emascu- 
lated, and all whoremongers. 

These composite quotations, though more common 
in ancient literature, are found also in modern. Thus 
in Conybeare and Howson's " Life and Epistles of 
St. Paul," Vol. I., page 54, are the two following in- 
stances not accompanied by any references or any word 
of explanation : 

" Thither the tribes go up, even the tribes of the Lord : 
to testify unto Israel, to give thanks unto the name of 
the Lord. There is little Benjamin, their ruler, and the 
princes of Judah, their council, the princes of Zebu- 
Ion and the princes of Napthali : for there is the seat 
of judgment, even the seat of the house of David." 
"Our feet shall stand within thy gates, O Jerusalem. 
O pray for the peace of Jerusalem : they shall prosper 
that love thee. Peace be within thy walls : and plen- 



102 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

teousness within thy palaces ; O God, wonderful art 
thou in thy holy places : even the God of Israel. He 
will give strength and power unto his people ! Blessed 
be God." 

Thus also Ruskin in his " Modern Painters," Vol. V., 
page 146, has the following as a quotation from the 
Psalms: "How love I thy law! It is my meditation 
all the day. Thy testimonies are my delight and my 
counsellors ; sweeter also than honey and the honey- 
comb." All these phrases may be found in the Psalms, 
and all relate to one subject, and the great critic fol- 
lowed the best literary precedents in throwing them to- 
gether as a continuous passage. 



VI 

QUOTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE 

IN a few instances the writers of the New Testament 
give us as quotations from the Old, sentences 
which it does not contain. If this method of quoting 
seems strange to us, it was well known in the apostolic 
age, and I cite the following instances of it from 
Greek and Latin literature. 

In his " Nicomachean Ethics," book X., chapter 2, sec- 
tion 3> Aristotle quotes Plato at some length, begin- 
ning with the words : " The life of pleasure, says Plato, 
is more desirable with wisdom than without wisdom." 
Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire writes, in his note on the 
passage : " This is not a textual citation of Plato ; it is 
only a condensed statement of his theory." 

In his " Rhetoric," book III., chapter 4, section 1, 
Aristotle quotes Homer as saying of Achilles : 

He rushed on like a lion. 

'O? Se Aewv krropovaev. 

These words are not in Homer ; but, as Cope says, 
'•'all the substance is there." The reference is to the 
long description of the lion in the " Iliad," XX., begin- 
ning at 164. 

At the opening of chapter five of his " Delay of the 
Divine Justice," Plutarch writes : 

But first see how, as Plato says, God, making himself con- 
spicuous as the example of all things good, bestows human vir- 
ion 



104 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

tue, in some sort his own likeness, on those who are able to be 
followers of God. 

Hackett has this note on the passage : 

The sentiment here ascribed to Plato is not found, in so many- 
words, in any passage of his writings, but is consonant with 
what he has taught in various places. This mode of quotation 
is not uncommon in Plutarch, nor is it unnatural in any writer. 
It should not have excited so much surprise that the writers ot 
the New Testament have occasionally alluded, in like manner, 
to predictions as existing in the Old Testament, which are not 
found there verbally, but in sense only. Of this class, as I 
understand it, is the prophecy referred to in Matt. 2 : 23. 

Epictetus writes, chapter XXVIIL, near the begin- 
ning : 

As Plato affirms: The soul is unwillingly deprived of truth. 

" This," says Thomas Wentworth Higginson, in a note 
to his translation of the sentence, " is not a literal 
quotation from Plato, but similar passages are to be 
found in his ' Laws,' IX., 5; 'Sophist,' section 29; 
'Protagoras,' section 87, etc." Thus, the sentiment of 
several long passages is gathered up and presented in 
a single brief saying. 

Maximus Tyrius, Dissertation XXII., the first para- 
graph, quotes as from the " Odyssey" the line : 

Self-taught am I ; the gods impart the song. 

No such line is anywhere in Homer ; but a sentiment 
like that which it expresses is found in the " Odyssey," 
XXII., 347, of which the quotation is a reminiscence, 
chiefly in other words. 

Lucian, in his " Defence of the Portraits," section 



QUOTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE IO5 

28, refers to "the prince of philosophers," by which 
term only Plato could be designated, as teaching that 
" man is an image of the deity." No such words are 
to be found in Plato, or, indeed, in the whole library of 
the Greek philosophers. Something distantly resem- 
bling the sentiment is found in the First and Second 
"Alcibiades " and in the " Republic " ; and Lucian, living 
at a time when Christian truth was beginning to per- 
meate the atmosphere, summed up, almost in the lan- 
guage of Holy Scripture, the vague guesses of the 
greatest of the pagan thinkers concerning the nature of 
the soul. If the reader wishes to learn what search has 
been made in Greek literature for the declaration which 
Lucian quotes, let him consult the edition of Hem- 
sterhuys, Vol. VI., p. 420, the last note on the page. 

In the first "Ennead" of Plotinus, book IV, section 
16, is this : " Plato was right when he said that if one 
would be wise and happy, he must receive the good 
from above, must look toward it, must become like it, 
must live according to it." These words are not in 
Plato ; but the sentiment is found in various places, as 
the "Theastetus," section 176, the " Phaedo," section 
42, the " Republic," book VI., section 509, and book 
X., section 613, the " Laws," book IV., section 716. 

THE QUOTATION. 

' Opdcoz yap xal IlXdrcov ixdtdev to dyadbv a&ot Xafift&vew, 
xal npoz exsivo ftX&Tietv top piilXopTa aocpbp xal eudaifiopa 
iaeadai xal ixsipuj bpocouadac xal xar ixeivo Cfjv. 

In the third "Ennead" of Plotinus, book III., sec- 
tion 4, he quotes Plato as saying : " The soul is brought 
into other animals after it has changed its nature, and 



106 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

the reason has altered itself in order to become the 
soul of an ox, which before was the soul of a man." 
This sentence is not in Plato, but is a general summary 
of the doctrine of the "Timaeus," section 42. 

THE QUOTATION. 

v Odsv xal e«c to. aXla £wd, cp^acv, daxpiveadat, oXov alXys 
T7£ <P D %^ yvjopkvr^, xal krepouodevroz too Aoyoo, sua ykv- 
yTcu (fiuyrj ftobz, 7] rcporepov yjp avdpcoTio^. 

In the sixth " Ennead " of Plotinus, book VIII. , sec- 
tion 6, writing of the human passions, he quotes from 
Plato as follows : " These, he says, are corrected by 
habit and exercise." This sentence is not in Plato, 
but it is a statement in other words of a sentiment ex- 
pressed at much length in the " Phaedo," sections 79 to 

83- 

THE QUOTATION. 

Tol~jtol yap iocxs, tpr t otv, iyy'K tc zeivecv rob acofiaro^ 
edict xal aoxrjoeac xaropdcodivza. 

In his fortieth letter Julian writes to Jamblichus : 
" I am not such a wretch as not to prefer you, as Pin- 
dar says, to all my affairs." There are no such words 
in Pindar, and the reference is to the opening lines of 
the first Isthmian ode : 

Your business, golden-shielded Thebes, 
To all my own I willingly prefer. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

To rsov, yp'joaa-t 

Oijpa, 
rrpdypa xal aoyoXiaz urripTe- 
pov dyjoopLac. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Mtj yap ouzco npd^acfit xaxax;, 
o»C P-rj xal aoyoliaz, fardffyc, 
xadd ipqat Ilivdapot;, to xazd 
ds xpzlrrov YJyetodat. 



QUOTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE 107 

Proclus, in his commentary on the " Timaeus " of 
Plato, book II., section 69, writes as follows : 

This was also granted to Timseus by Socrates, when he di- 
vides a line into four parts, the intelligible, the dianoetic, the 
sensible, and the conjectural ; where likewise, speaking about 
the good, he says that it reigns in the intelligible place, in the 
same manner as the sun in the visible region. 

This is Taylor's translation. There are no such 
words in Plato ; but he has the thought in an extended 
form in the " Republic," book VI., section 508. 

To show clearly the structure of these compressed 
quotations in ancient literature, I give here, from Jow- 
ett's translation, the whole passage : 

' ' And which, ' ' I said, ' ' of the Gods in heaven, would you say was 
the lord of this element ? Whose is that light which makes the 
eye to see perfectly and the visible to appear ? " ' ' You mean the 
sun, as you and all mankind say. " ' • May not the relation of sight 
to this deity be as follows?" "How?" "Neither sight, nor 
the eye in which sight resides, is the sun." "No." " Yet of 
all the organs of sense the eye is likest the sun." "Far the 
likest." "And the power which the eye possesses is a sort of 
effluence which is dispensed by the sun ? " " Exactly. " " Then 
the sun is not sight, but the author of sight who is recognized by 
sight?" "True," he said. "And this is he whom I call the 
child of the good, whom the good begat in his own likeness, to 
be in the visible world, in relation to sight and the things of 
sight, what the good is in the intellectual world in relation to 
mind and the things of the mind." "Will you be a little more 
explicit?" he said. "Why, you know," I said, "that the eyes, 
when a person no longer directs them toward those objects on 
the colors of which the light of day is shining, but the moon 
and stars only, see dimly, and are nearly blind ; they seem to 
have no clearness of vision in them." "Very true." "But 
when they are directed toward objects on which the sun shines, 
they see clearly, and there is sight in them?" "Certainly." 



108 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

"And the soul is like the eye : when resting on that on which 
truth and being shine, the soul perceives and understands, and 
is radiant with intelligence ; but when turned towards the twilight 
of becoming and perishing, then she has opinion only, and goes 
blinking about, and is first of one opinion and then of another, 
and seems to have no intelligence?" "Just so." "Now, 
that which imparts truth to the known and the power of knowing 
to the knower is what I would have you term the idea of good, 
and that you will regard as the cause of science and of truth, as 
known by us ; beautiful too, as are both truth and knowledge, 
you will be right in estimating this other nature as more beauti- 
ful than either ; and, as in the previous instance, light and sight 
may be truly said to be like the sun, and yet not to be the sun, 
so in this other sphere, science and truth may be deemed like 
the good, but not the good ; the good has a place of honor yet 
higher." "What a wonder of beauty that must be," he said, 
" which is the author of science and truth, and yet surpasses them 
in beauty ; for you surely cannot mean to say that the good is 
pleasure ? " " Speak not profanely, ' ' I replied ; ' ' but please to 
consider the image in another point of view." "How?'' "Why, 
you would say that the sun is not only the author of visibility in 
all visible things, but of generation and nourishment and growth, 
though he himself is not a generation?" "Certainly." " In 
like manner the good may be said to be not only the author of 
knowledge in all things known, but of their being and essence, 
and yet the good is not essence, but far exceeds essence in dig- 
nity and power." 

Then follows the illustration of the line cut into four 
equal parts, one of which he calls the intelligible, to 
represent the highest region of existence and thought. 
He does not say anything about the good reigning 
in this intelligible part, though he implies that it 
does so. 

Cicero, " De Finibus," book II., chapter 28, quotes 
Epicurus as follows: "The greatest pain is brief." 



QUOTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE IO9 

This is quite condensed ; the sentence of Epicurus is 
much longer. 1 

Quintilian, book VIII., chapter 3, cites Cicero as say- 
ing in a letter to Brutus: " In my judgment nothing 
is eloquence that does not strike with admiration and 
surprise." "In all the extant letters of the Roman 
orator to Brutus," writes the Rev. James Scott, 2 " this 
quotation is nowhere formally to be found ; but we find 
the substance of it." 

Lastly, we have a passage in Aristotle which fur- 
nishes us examples of several of the methods of quo- 
ting already spoken of in this book. It is the fol- 
lowing : 

The spirit of anger too, men reckon as courage, and they 
who act through anger, like brutes turning on those who have 
wounded them, get the character of being brave, because the 
converse is true, and brave men are spirited. The spirit of 
anger is most keen for the encountering of dangers, and hence 
Homer wrote : 

" He put strength into his spirit." 
" He roused up his strength and spirit.' ' 
" Fierce strength in his nostrils." 
" His blood boiled." 

Here are four short phrases attributed to Homer ; 
"and none of them," says Grant, 3 is quite accurate." The 
first is compounded of the " Iliad," XIV., 151 and XVI., 
529. The last "is not in Homer at all." It is an in- 
stance of the sense of Homer expressed in new words 
and by new imagery. Aristotle is arguing that anger 
is a source of courage, and proving it from the poet. 

1 See his " Select Sentences," IV. 

2 "Principles of New Testament Quotation," p. 89. 

3 "Ethics of Aristotle," Vol. II., p. 41, note 10. 

K 



IIO QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

This is the representation of Homer in many places, 
and Aristotle sums up their essence in his own way. 

Thus this method of quoting was in accordance with 
the literary customs of antiquity ; it misled no one ; it 
perplexed no one ; for it was readily understood, and 
was recommended by its convenience, as it enabled a 
writer to refer in a brief sentence to long and widely 
scattered statements from celebrated and familiar 
books, which the reader would at once recall, being 
thus reminded of them. 

In the whole New Testament there are but three or 
four clear instances of this kind. 

At Matt. 2 : 23, it is said that Joseph, through fear 
of Archelaus, made a home for Jesus in Nazareth, 
" that it might be fulfilled which was spoken through 
the prophets, that he should be called a Nazarene." 
There is no prediction in the Old Testament verbally 
like this, and it is probably an instance of quotation of 
substance, rather than of words. If it occurred in any 
ancient Greek book but the New Testament, it would 
be interpreted in this way at once, and no difficulty 
would be found with it, as the preceding examples show. 
That it is referred by the evangelist to « the prophets," 
and not to any particular prophet, favors this view ; 
though in a few exceptional instances, John 6 : 45 ; 
Acts 1 3 : 40 ; 15:15, the plural is employed with ref- 
erence to predictions by particular prophets. The form 
of quotation used in the original may be read as either 
direct or indirect. In our Common version the proph- 
ecy is translated as a direct quotation ; while the re- 
visers of our English Bible, on the other hand, have 
translated it as an indirect quotation, evidently regard- 



QUOTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE III 

ing it as a quotation of substance, and not of language, 
and supposing that such a quotation should have the 
indirect form. The examples which I have adduced, 
however, show that the Greek writers, in quoting the 
substance of what others have said, sometimes employ 
one form of quotation, and sometimes another. The 
quotation of substance, if from a poet, may even take 
the form of verse, with measure, rhythm, cadence, as in 
several of the instances which I have adduced. 

The quotation, if this view is correct, is a summary 
statement of all those predictions of the Old Testa- 
ment which represent the Messiah as lowly, despised, 
and suffering, such as Ps. 22, Isa. 53, and Lam. 3. 
All Galileans were regarded in Jerusalem as unculti- 
vated and rude. " A Galilean," says Toy, "was recog- 
nized by his ridiculous pronunciation," as was Peter 
(Matt. 26 : 73). "He especially confounded the gut- 
tural letters." In the Talmud he is held to be inca- 
pable of understanding the Scriptures rightly. The 
Pharisees said that no prophet could arise out of Gali- 
lee (John 7 : 52). Nazareth would share the general 
contempt in which all Galilee was held. But it had, 
in addition, a low reputation of its own, even in Gali- 
lee, as is evident from the words of Nathanael, himself 
a Galilean: "Can there anything good come out of 
Nazareth?" (John 1 : 46.) 

The bad character of the Nazarenes, so well known 
to the evangelist and his Jewish readers, w T ould render 
the meaning of the quotation clear to them. To us 
the character of the Nazarenes is a subject of curious 
inquiry, and we determine it by consulting ancient 
documents, in which we glean but a hint here and 



112 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

there ; but to the Jews of the first century it was an 
ever-present odium ; and hence, while to some modern 
critics the residence of Jesus in Nazareth may seem a 
questionable fulfillment of the predictions of his lowli- 
ness and the contempt with which his countrymen 
should regard him, to his immediate followers, ac- 
quainted but too well with the ill-savor of the town, it 
would need only to be mentioned in order to be recog- 
nized as a most sad instance of his humiliation and 
suffering, which the prophets had foretold in many 
passages too long to reproduce in full. 

Toy does not reject this view of the quotation, but 
finds two difficulties with it : 

i. "It does not seem likely," he writes, "that the 
evangelist would make so vague an allusion to such 
striking passages as Isa. 53 and Lam. 3." But the al- 
lusion is not more "vague" than many of the quota- 
tions of substance in Greek and Latin literature which 
I have adduced. Besides, it springs naturally from the 
narrative of the settlement of Joseph in Nazareth. 

2. "An accidental social contempt," Toy says again, 
"attaching to birth in Nazareth, corresponds only 
feebly to the prophetic picture of a man despised and 
rejected because of his adherence to the law of God." 
But the "social contempt" beneath which Jesus suf- 
fered was not on account of his " birth in Nazareth," for 
he was not born there. Nor was it because people in 
general supposed that he was born there, but because 
it was known that he grew up there from early child- 
hood, until he was thirty years of age, and that his 
education and associations were Nazarene. The " so- 
cial contempt " was not " accidental." The parents of 



QUOTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE 113 

our Lord intended to bring him up elsewhere, and 
would have done so had they not been "warned of God 
in a dream" (Matt. 2 : 22), of the danger which they 
were about to incur. Perhaps they selected Nazareth 
for their home, after their return from Egypt, not only 
on account of its obscurity, but because its reputation 
was such that even a bloodthirsty Herod would not 
think of looking for the Messiah in it. In any case, 
they were driven to the remote and disreputable city 
of Nazareth by the sin of the world embodied in the 
murderous jealousy of a great ruler ; and the residence 
of Jesus in this unbelieving and wicked place (Mark 6 : 
6 ; Luke 4 : 28-30 ; John 1 : 46), and the contempt in 
which it involved him, was a part, and no small part, of 
his humiliation and suffering for the world. A holy 
man might form some conception of the mental and 
spiritual pain which it involved, should he be compelled 
to spend thirty years in the immediate company of the 
most ignorant and vicious persons, and then to go out 
into society with all the stigma of such associations upon 
him. Of course, the residence of Christ in Nazareth 
and the suffering which attended and followed it do 
not correspond fully to the "prophetic picture of a 
man despised and rejected because of his adherence to 
the law of God," for it is only a part of the picture, the 
whole embracing his entire life and death. 

At John 7:38 our Lord cries : " He who believeth 
on me, as the Scripture hath said, out of his belly shall 
flow rivers of living water." There is no passage in 
the Old Testament which contains just these words 5 
but they express the meaning of all those passages 
which represent the salutary influence of a holy man 



114 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

under the image of flowing water, like Isa. 58 : 11 : 
" Thou shalt be like a watered garden, and like a 
spring of water, whose waters fail not"; or Prov. 
18 14: 

The words of a man's mouth are as deep waters ; 
The well-spring of wisdom is as a flowing brook. 

At Rom. 3 : 10 the Apostle Paul says: "As it is 
written, There is none righteous, no, not one." It is 
generally held that this quotation can be found only in 
substance in the Old Testament, and does not follow 
verbally any particular passage. Toy regards it as a 
condensation of Eccl. 7 : 20 : " There is not a right- 
eous man on earth, who does good and sins not " ; and 
Ps. 14 : 3 : "no, not one." If he had referred to the 
latter passage as a whole, he would probably have been 
more nearly accurate : " There is none that doeth good, 
no, not one." Indeed, I doubt if this quotatation 
should be regarded as one of substance only ; for it 
follows Ps. 14 : 3 so nearly that it seems to me a ver- 
bal quotation, with such slight variation from the 
Hebrew text as occurs frequently in the New Testa- 
ment. 

At Eph. 5:14, the Apostle Paul quotes as follows : 
"Wherefore he saith, Awake, thou that sleepest, and 
arise from the dead, and Christ shall shine upon thee." 
"The preceding context," writes Toy, "speaks of the 
shameful hidden deeds of sin, and the necessity of ex- 
posing them to light that they may be seen in their 
true character, and avoided ; and in this citation Christ 
is declared to be the source of light." The quotation 
has given rise to much debate, chiefly because the 



QUOTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE 115 

words cannot be found in the Old Testament. Phrases 
somewhat like them occur at Isa. 60 : 1 and 26 : 19 • 
" Arise, shine ; for thy light is come, and the glory of 
the Lord is risen upon thee." "Awake and sing, ye 
that dwell in the dust : for thy dew is as the dew of 
herbs, and the earth shall cast forth the dead." These 
verses, however, are too distant from the language 
quoted to afford a very secure reference. Toy con- 
cludes his discussion of the quotation by expressing 
the opinion that it is probably a free rendering of sev- 
eral passages in Isaiah. I should say, rather, that it is 
a summing up of the teaching of various Scriptures, 
the sense of which is that Christ shall be the light of 
men, and especially of such as shall arise from sin to 
seek him in truth. These passages are so frequent 
in the Old Testament that there is no occasion to 
specify them. Thus the quotation would be what 
Meyer calls it, " a mingling of Old Testament reminis- 
cences." 



VII 

ALLEGORY 

THERE are two places in the New Testament in 
which the writers quote from the Old in order 
to present to their readers certain features of our relig- 
ion by means of allegories. I refer to Gal. 4 : 21-31, 
where Hagar and Sarah are brought forward as repre- 
sentative, the one of the law and the other of the 
gospel; and to Heb. 7, where Melchizedek is regarded 
as representative of Christ. If, as some have thought, 
there are other allegorical quotations, they do not 
clearly define themselves as such. Jowett 1 points to 
Rom. 7 ; 1 Cor. 10 ; 2 Cor. 3, and a few other passages 
yet more doubtfully allegorical. Some of these should 
be regarded as typical, rather than as allegorical. 
Meyer, writing of passages similar to these, says : 

We must be on our guard against confounding the idea of the 
allegory with that of the type. Neither does the type necessarily 
rest on allegorical interpretation, nor does the allegory necessar- 
ily presuppose that what is so interpreted is a type ; the two may 
be independent one of the other. The allegory has a much 
freer scope, and may be handled very differently by different 
people ; but the type is a real divine preformation of a New Tes- 
tament fact in the Old Testament history. One fact signifies 
another allegorically when the ideal character of the latter is 
shown as presenting itself in the former ; in which case the sig- 
nificant fact need not be derived from the Old Testament, and 
the interpretations may be very various. 

1 " Epistles of St. Paul," Vol. I., p. 361. 
116 



x ALLEGORY 117 

The type in other words, being a divine foreshadowing 
of future characters and events, admits of but one in- 
terpretation of its typical meaning; while the mate- 
rials from which the allegory is derived may be molded 
in various shapes, according to the various conceptions 
of those who employ them. 

A second reason for not considering in this chapter 
the other passages sometimes ranked as allegories, is 
my conviction that some of them should be excluded 
even from the list of types, and reckoned as mere ordi- 
nary illustrations. A third is the fact that, in any 
case, they present no difficulties which are not met in 
the two immediately before us. 

Let us turn now to the first of these passages and 
examine a single phrase of Gal. 4 : 21-31 : we shall 
then consider both our allegories together. 

The Apostle Paul, in Gal. 4 : 21-31, after reciting 
the history of Hagar and Sarah, and their sons Ishmael 
and Isaac, introduces his application of it with words 
that are rendered in our Common version : " Which 
things are an allegory " ; and in the Revised version : 
" Which things contain an allegory." The rendering 
of the Revised version is for substance that on which 
Meyer insists as the only correct one. According to 
him the Greek verb, 1 which here is in the passive 
voice, 2 must be rendered, " to be spoken allegorically, 
to have an allegorical meaning" ; and hence the alle- 
gory in the instance before us must be found in the 
original passage, and not in the use which the apostle 
makes of it. I do not know how to reconcile this 

1 Pres. act. ind., 1st p., aAA^-yopew. 

2 Pres. pass, participle, aM-qyopovnevo*. 



Il8 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

statement with the definition of the allegory as dis- 
tinguished from the type which Meyer gives on the 
same page with it, and which I have reproduced. If 
the apostle means to say that the history was allegor- 
ized by Moses when he wrote it, or by God when he 
providentially ordered its events, how can it be inter- 
preted in various ways by various later writers ? It 
would be, I should suppose, quite as rigidly fixed as the 
type. 

However, we are not obliged to adopt this rendering 
of the Greek verb. In the passive voice, in which it 
is here found, it may mean either, " Which things are 
spoken allegorically " by the historian, and hence " have 
an allegorical sense" ; or, " Which things are allegor- 
ized," that is, " by me, here and now." The former 
rendering is sustained by the lexicons, and the latter 
by Tholuck, Hofmann, Marsh, Palfrey, and others. 
Meyer admits that the passive verb sometimes has the 
meaning claimed for it here by Hofmann, and says that 
it is so used "in Plutarch, Synesius, and elsewhere." 
Davidson defends the former rendering only because it 
is "as good as the proposed one." Riddle 1 grants that 
the passive verb may have the latter sense, but he " in- 
sists " upon what he calls " the more definite and strict 
meaning " in this place, because " this interpretation 
will guard against the assumptions and errors which are 
based on the looser view." What these " assumptions 
and errors " are he nowhere tells us. Why should any 
" assumptions and errors " be " based on " the fact that 
the Apostle Paul constructs an allegory out of material 

1 " Galatians," in the American edition of Lange. 



ALLEGORY 119 

furnished by the Old Testament ? Dante does the 
same ; Bunyan does the same ; and no one censures 
them. Why then should it be forbidden to an apostle 
to frame allegories in which important truths are made 
clear and impressive ? Or, if we say that the allegory 
in this instance was framed by Moses, or by God, and 
only interpreted by the apostle, what " assumptions 
and errors " do we avoid by thus shifting it from one 
author to another ? 

In either case, the apostle does not set aside the his- 
toric character of the narrative. This is granted bv 
all critics who are even tolerably free from the desire 
to impeach his inspiration. Kuenen, indeed, attributes 
to him " a misconception of the historic meaning " of 
Scripture, and Davidson declares that "he treats the 
history as pure allegory without any objective basis." 
Dogmatic statements like these are to be expected 
from such sources, and they are usually emphatic in 
proportion to the absence of evidence in their favor. 
But the great majority of critics, of even the more 
careless schools of theological thought, admit at once 
that the New Testament writer holds fast the historic 
verity of the record which he uses as the basis of his 
allegory. Indeed, throughout this Epistle to the Gala- 
tians, as in all his other writings, Paul assumes the ac- 
curacy of the Old Testament history, and uniformly 
founds his arguments upon it without a shadow of 
doubt or misgiving. Spenser shows no " misconcep- 
tion of the historic meaning " of Queen Elizabeth by 
giving her a place in the "Faerie Oueene." Bunyan 
shows no "misconception of the historic meaning" of 
Demas by giving him a place in the " Pilgrim's Pro- 



120 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

gress." Goethe shows no "misconception of the his- 
toric meaning " of Lord Byron by giving him a place 
in the " Second Part of Faust." In short, allegory 
does not usually either affirm or deny "the historic 
meaning " of the records on which it is based, or ask 
any questions regarding it ; and there is no hint of any 
doubt in the passage before us. 

If we adopt the former of the two renderings of the 
Greek passive verb " to be allegorized," then we shall 
see in the history of Hagar and Sarah a divinely or- 
dered foreshadowing of the law and the gospel in their 
relations to each other, an acted parable, a history and 
an allegory in one. We shall find use for the state- 
ment of Toy : " In a general way it is true that, in the 
Genesis narrative, Sarah and Hagar represent faith in 
God and its absence." We know that much of the 
history of the Old Dispensation foreshadows the New, 
and this will be for us one of the series of events thus 
providentially arranged. If, on the other hand, we 
adopt the latter of the two interpretations, as the usage 
of the word permits us to do, then the history will re- 
main for us a history, and we shall hold that it is used 
by the apostle as material for his allegorical concep- 
tion, precisely as other historical and biographical ma- 
terial is used by other writers of allegory. 

At the same time we must recognize a typical ele- 
ment in both these historic passages, as throughout the 
Old Testament records ; " Sarah and Hagar represent " 
typically "faith in God and its absence" ; and Mel- 
chizedek represents Christ as a most vivid type. The 
authors of the epistles to the Galatians and the He- 
brews, however, do not limit their view to the typical 



ALLEGORY 121 

features of the history ; they take these for a sugges- 
tion, a starting-point, and construct their allegories 
with perfect freedom, like all masters of this species of 
literature. 

< c But," some one may still say, "was it right for the 
writers of the New Testament to bring out of the Old 
Testament record a meaning which it does not con- 
tain ? " Let me make my answer clear, at the risk of 
some repetition. These writers do not, in any case, 
" bring out of the Old Testament record a meaning 
which it does not contain." Is it in itself at once both 
history and allegory ? Then they do but interpret it 
and set before us its real inner meaning. Or, is it 
only typical history, which they use allegorically, ac- 
cording to the general custom of the authors of alle- 
gory ? Then, like them, they make it a means of illus- 
trating thoughts in addition to those which it contains ; 
these thoughts belong not to the history, but to the 
allegorists, and they employ it only as an appropriate 
vehicle to convey them to our minds. Dante does not 
bring out of the brief story of Beatrice a meaning 
which it does not contain. Goethe does not bring out 
of the Faust-legend a meaning which it does not con- 
tain. Bunyan does not bring out of the incidents of a 
mediaeval pilgrimage a meaning which they do not con- 
tain. All these great writers, admitting the literal 
meaning of the materials with which they deal, so use 
them as to express to the reader a meaning additional 
to the literal, and this additional meaning does not be- 
long to their materials, but is their own. 

In the remainder of this chapter I shall recognize 
the allegory as existing in the New Testament alone, 



122 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

adopting the second of the two definitions of the Greek 
passive verb ''to be allegorized." 

There are some features of our biblical allegories 
which seem at first to be of a very unusual character. 
For example, Hagar is said to represent " Mount Sinai 
in Arabia." Again, the name and title of Melchizedek 
are analyzed and employed as significant of Christian 
truth ; and the fact that he appears in the record with- 
out any statement of his parentage, his birth, or his 
death, is used to set forth the eternity of the Son of 
God. These features of the passage have occasioned 
some surprise. Volumes have been written on such 
questions as the following : Was the name Hagar one 
of the names by which Mount Sinai was designated in 
ancient times ? Was Melchizedek, who was " without 
beginning of life or end of days," an angel incarnate, 
or even Christ himself ? Were the name, " King of 
righteousness," and the title, " King of peace," con- 
ferred on Melchizedek by special divine revelation ? 
I ask, therefore, that the reader bear these difficulties 
in mind while he accompanies me in a study of the alle- 
gory in general literature, to ascertain the principles of 
its structure and to observe the freedom with which 
the writer employs the materials at his command. We 
shall approach our conclusion by an indirect and cir- 
cuitous path, but at the end the difficulties with which 
we start will have vanished, for we shall have found the 
biblical allegories, after all, quite like those of other 
literature, whether ancient or modern. 

Fortunately, we have much allegory in our modern 
literatures, and we need not go beyond our own doors 
to study the peculiarities of this kind of writing. Spen- 



ALLEGORY 123 

ser's " Eclogues " and " Faerie Queene " are allegories 
from beginning to end. Swift's " Tale of a Tub," his 
"Battle of the Books," and his " Gulliver," are among 
the most brilliant of allegories. But Bunyan stands 
at the head of the recent authors of allegory; his 
" Pilgrim's Progress " excels all other works of its class 
in character-drawing and incident and humor, and his 
" Holy War " in the felicity of the invention and the 
thoroughness and consistency with which it is wrought 
out. There are many allegories also in the " Second 
Part of Faust ;" and, going back a little, in the " Di- 
vine Comedy " and the " New Life " of Dante. In all 
these works, the older materials of history and fable 
are freely allegorized by the later writers, as Sarah and 
Hagar are in the Epistle to the Galatians, and as Mel- 
chizedek is in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Thus in 
the " Second Part of Faust " Ariel stands for poetry ; 
the Graces, the Parcae, and the Furies are introduced 
with new offices ; Zo'ilus, a historic character, an 
abusive critic of the third century before Christ, and 
Thersites, a mythical character, a personage of the 
Iliad, are joined in one, and become Zoi'lo-Thersites, 
the embodiment of political slander; Helen of Troy is 
the beautiful in art ; Anaxagoras and Thales represent 
the two antagonistic schools of geology which existed 
at the beginning of our century ; and the Virgin Mary 
is the symbol of divine love. 

Does the allegory in Heb. 7 speak of Melchizedek 
as " without beginning of days or end of life " ? 1 And 

1 Among the cuneiform tablets found at Tel el-Amarna, is one in 
which a priest of Jerusalem speaks. He was a worshiper of a deity 
whose name corresponds well with that of "the most high God," men- 



124 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

does this mean merely the Melchizedek who appears in 
the record, as distinguished from the Melchizedek who 
was born, who lived, who died, and was buried ? Car- 
lyle, in his essay on Goethe's " Helena," writes as fol- 
lows of a portion of the "Second Part of Faust," which 
is a series of allegories : 

Faust too — for he, as every one sees, must be lord of this for- 
tress — is a much altered man since we last met him. Nay, some- 
times we could fancy he were only acting a part on this occa- 
sion, were a mere mummer, representing not so much his own 
personality as some shadow and impersonation of his history; 
not so much his own Faustship as the tradition of Faust's ad- 
ventures. 

This is precisely the principle of the sacred allegory 
which we are considering. The Melchizedek of the 
allegory in " not so much his own personality as some 
shadow and impersonation of his history " ; and any 
feature of the history is employed which is adapted to 
the purpose of the writer. 

It is one of the privileges granted to the allegorist 
to consider the record rather than the real person or 
thing spoken of in it. The " pillar of salt" of Gen. 
19 : 26 does not now exist ; but the writer of allegory 

tioned in Gen. 14:18. It appears from the tablet that he was not a 
hereditary priest. Sayce supposes him to have been a lineal successor of 
Melchizedek, and would find in the fact that the priests of this line did not 
inherit their office, an explanation of the statement in Heb. 7 : 3, that Mel- 
chizedek was " without father, without mother, without genealogy." He 
would apply the statement not to Melchizedek as a person, but to Mel- 
chizedek as a priest. What explanation, however, does this afford of the 
phrases immediately following, " Having neither beginning of days nor 
end of life " ? It is evident that the writer throughout the passage uses 
his materials with the freedom to which the authors of allegory are accus- 
tomed, and not with historic precision. 



ALLEGORY 125 

beholds it yet standing, and Bunyan has his pilgrim 
examine it : 

Now I saw that just on the other side of this plain, the pil- 
grims came to a place where stood an old monument hard by 
the highway-side. . . They both concluded that it was the pillar 
of salt into which Lot's wife was turned for her looking back 
with a covetous heart. 

So also, to Bunyan, Demas is still living and seeking 
silver. 

This fanciful and capricious character of even reli- 
gious allegory is recognized by Carlyle in the early 
pages of his " Heroes and Hero Worship " : 

The "Pilgrim's Progress" is an allegory, and a beautiful, 
just, and serious one ; but consider whether Bunyan' s allegory 
could have preceded the faith it symbolizes ! The faith had 
been already there, standing, believed by everybody ; of which 
the allegory could then become the shadow ; and with all 
seriousness, we may say a sportful shadow, a mere play of the 
fancy, in comparison with that awful fact and scientific certainty 
which it poetically strives to emblem. 

But was the ancient allegorist as free in the use of 
his materials as is the modern ? Yes, almost neces- 
sarily ; for, as Lowell says : 

The true poetic imagination is of one quality, whether it be 
ancient or modern, and equally subject to those laws of grace, 
of proportion, of design, in whose free service, and in that alone, 
it can become art. Those laws are something which do not 

Alter when they alteration find 

And bend with the remover to remove. 

But let us take nothing for granted ; let us examine 
for ourselves the Greek allegory, with which the 



126 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Apostle Paul and the writer of the Epistle to the He- 
brews would be acquainted. 

The most famous allegory of classical literature is 
that of " Er," in the " Republic " of Plato, book X., 
section 614. In this the great philosopher deals with 
the Fates, or Parcae, in a manner peculiar to himself, 
giving them a new interpretation, in order to illustrate 
his doctrine of the pre-existence of our souls. He 
deals also in a similar manner with characters which he 
believes to be strictly historical, such as Ajax, Aga- 
memnon, and Achilles, bringing them back into the 
world in new forms, such as each of them might choose. 
In addition to this great allegory, he has that of " The 
Origin of Love," that of " The Soul," that of " Theuth," 
that of "The Creation of Man," that of "Zamolxis," 
and others. No one acquainted with his works can fail 
to admire these charming creations, or to perceive the 
genuine persuasive power which they give his pages. 
In all of them he uses his materials in the freest man- 
ner ; and transforms myth, legend, and history, to suit 
any of his purposes. 

In the " Phaedo," section 95, we have an allegory 
not unlike that of the Apostle Paul in Galatians, ex- 
cept that it is much shorter. To understand it, we 
must remember that in the Greek mythology, Harmony 
was the wife of Cadmus, and that both were Thebans 
In the "Phaedo," the two friendly opponents of Soc- 
rates are Simmias and Cebes ; they are from Thebes ; 
and Simmias doubts that the soul is immortal, because 
he holds it to be a kind of harmony produced by the 
body ; it can no more endure, therefore, after the body 
is dissolved, than the harmony of the lyre after the 



ALLEGORY 12 J 

lyre is destroyed. Socrates answers this objection, 
and then adds : " Thus much of your Theban Harmony, 
who has not been ungracious to us, I think ; but what 
shall we say to the Theban Cadmus, and how shall I 
propitiate him ? " Here Simmias is Harmony, and 
Cebes is Cadmus. Cebes takes up the allegory and car- 
ries it on, saving with admirable courtesy that Cadmus 
will share the fate of Harmony, that he expects to be 
defeated in the argument. To all the speakers of the 
dialogue Harmony and Cadmus were historical person- 
ages. The brief allegory turns upon the two facts 
that Simmias and Cebes are of Thebes, the city of 
Cadmus and Harmony, and that Simmias has much to 
say about harmony. The allegory thus depends in 
part on the geographical location of a legend which was 
believed to be a history, and partly on the meaning of 
a proper name. 

The fine allegory of " The Two Loves," in the 
"Symposium," section 180, is also worthy of our spe- 
cial study : 

We all know that Love is inseparable from Aphrodite, and if 
there were only one Aphrodite, there would be only one Love ; 
but as there are two goddesses there must be two Loves. For 
am I not right in asserting that there are two goddesses ? The 
elder one, having no mother, who is called the heavenly Aphro- 
dite, is the daughter of Uranus ; the younger is the daughter of 
Zeus and Dione, whom we call common; and the other Love, 
who is her fellow-worker, may and must also have the name of 
common, as the other is called heavenly. . . The Love who is 
the son of the common Aphrodite is essentially common and 
has no discrimination, being such as the meaner sort of men 
feel . . . and is of the body rather than the soul. . . The most 
foolish beings are the objects of this Love. The goddess who 
is his mother is far younger, and she was born of the union of 



128 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

the male and female, and partakes of both sexes. But the son 
of the heavenly Aphrodite is sprung from a mother in whose 
birth the female has no part, but she is from the male only . . . 
and the goddess, being older, has nothing of wantonness. 
Those who are inspired by this Love turn to the male, and de- 
light in him who is the more valiant and intelligent nature. 

This allegory of " The Two Loves " reminds the 
reader irresistibly of that of the " two sons " of 
Abraham, the one " born after the flesh," and the 
other " born through promise," whose mothers repre- 
sent "The Jerusalem that now is," and " the Jerusalem 
that is above." But it reminds us equally of the alle- 
gory of Melchizedek, with its explanations of the names 
of its characters, one being the offspring of Urania, 
and hence of a celestial nature ; and the other of Pan- 
demus, and hence necessarily vulgar. The writer ob- 
serves any circumstances connected with the ancestry 
or the birth or the activities of his characters, as that 
one inspires sober love, because older than the other, 
and a love directed toward males, because the offspring 
of a mother who herself had no mother, but only a 
father. All these peculiarities are reproduced, in the 
two great allegories of the New Testament, not by a 
process of imitation, but by the spontaneous working 
of the literary instinct m the production of allegory. 

In the same work, Socrates constructs an allegory, 
in order to teach vividly and agreeably his doctrine of 
love. According to him, love is not the offspring of 
Aphrodite at all ; he is her follower and attendant, be- 
cause he is attracted by her beauty, and because he 
happened to be born on an anniversary of her birth- 
day. He is in fact the child of Poros, or Plenty, and 



ALLEGORY I29 

Penia, or Poverty. This is told in the form of a story. 
Then follows the inference from the names of his 
father and mother : " As his parentage, so also are his 
fortunes." Because in the story his mother is Pov- 
erty, and is homeless and sleeps out of doors, he is 
ever unsatisfied and full of wants. " He is always 
poor, and anything but tender and fair, as the many 
imagine him ; and he is hard-featured and squalid, and 
has no shoes nor a house to dwell in ; on the bare earth 
exposed he lies under the open heaven, taking his rest 
in the streets, or at the doors of houses ; and like his 
mother, he is always in distress." So also, because his 
father in the story is named Plenty, and because plenty 
is the result of shrewdness and industry, he, " like his 
father, whom he partly resembles, is always plotting 
against the fair and good ; he is bold, enterprising, 
strong, a hunter of men, always at some intrigue or 
other." 

Steele, in the ninetieth number of the " Tattler," 
states with admirable spirit and some poetic embellish- 
ment the inferences drawn by Socrates from the story : 

As love "is the son of Plenty, who was the offspring of Pru- 
dence, he is subtle, intriguing, full of stratagems and devices; as 
the son of Poverty, he is fawning, begging, serenading, delight- 
ing to lie at the threshold or beneath a window. By the father, 
he is audacious, full of hopes, conscious of merit, and therefore 
quick of resentment. By the mother, he is timorous, mean- 
spirited, fearful of offending, and abject in submissions. In the 
same hour you may see him transported with raptures, talking 
of immortal pleasures, and appearing satisfied as a god ; and im- 
mediately after, as the mortal mother prevails in his composi- 
tion, you behold him pining, languishing, despairing, dying." 
"The supposing Love to be conceived immediately after the 



130 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

birth of Beauty; the parentage of Plenty; and the inconsistency 
of this passion with itself, so naturally derived from it, are great 
master-strokes." 

The reader will not fail to observe that this allegory 
turns chiefly on the names of parents. 

The names of the personages of Greek mythology play 
an important part in the later allegorical interpretations 
of these ancient stories. Miiller, the foremost writer 
on Greek mythology, testifies that " the poets were al- 
ways alive to the allegorical signification of the names ; 
thus Pindar humorously calls Excuse a daughter of 
Afterthought." Not infrequently the myth itself is an 
allegory in which the significance of its proper names 
has been considered by its author or authors ; for, as 
Carlyle says, the mythology of the Greeks is often "a 
play of poetic minds," " a shadowing forth, in allegori- 
cal fable, in personification and visual form, of what 
such poetic minds had known and felt of this universe." 
Muller instances the story of Prometheus told by 
Hesiod : " Prometheus, ' Forethought,' stole fire from 
heaven and became the instructor of man in the indus- 
trious trades and useful arts. The gods, to frustrate 
the aim of this striving, sent Pandora, the ' All-gifted,' 
who found access to Epimetheus, or ' Afterthought,' 
and introduced upon earth whatever evils are wont to 
attend labor and industry." The same great scholar 
points out another example in the Homeric fable of the 
Litai, or " Humble Prayers," who are called " daughters 
of mighty Zeus," because the god protects those who 
implore his aid. " They are represented," he says, 
" as following with halting steps the fierce and head- 
long Ate, ' Blind Passion,' who is also called ' a daughter 



ALLEGORY 131 

of Zeus,' because he gives and takes away reason ; and 
as endeavoring to overtake her in order to repair the 
mischief she has occasioned." 

The names of places in these allegories of the Greek 
mythology are often as significant as those of persons. 
Says Miiller : 

At Byzantium Io was said to have grazed on the tongue of 
land called Keras, "the Horn," at the confluence of the streams 
Barbuses and Kudarus, and to have brought forth a daughter, 
Keroessa, "the Horned One," mother of Byzas, the hero of the 
city. It seems to me clear that the name Bosporus, " Cow- 
ford," has some connection with these myths, that the Byzan- 
tines applied it to the strait in honor of their legendary cow, and 
that the tradition of Io having swum across originated in this 
way. 

The legend of Io connected the goddess also with the 
Ionian Sea, and thus accounted for its name. Io, the 
cow, was "the horned moon"; and the story of her 
wandering was originally but an allegory of the changes 
of this satellite, so mysterious to the early peoples of 
the world. As the story was passed on from one gen- 
eration to another, and was worked over by various 
writers, it lost its modest proportions and its original 
design, and became a sort of awkward romance ; but 
its real nature can be discerned still beneath these later 
incrustations. 

I might extend much farther these examples of the 
use of proper names in allegory ; but those which I 
have given are sufficient to illustrate the peculiar work- 
ing of the human mind when it enters this ethereal 
region. Modern allegory and ancient allegory exhibit 
these features in common. Not that the modern is 



132 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

derived consciously from the ancient. The features 
which I have illustrated belong to allegory as such, 
wheresoever it is produced, and whensoever, and by 
whomsoever. So the biblical allegories, exhibiting the 
same features, were not formed in imitation of others ; 
they were the spontaneous creations of men not un- 
acquainted with the great books of Greece and Rome, 
surrendering their minds to the allegorizing impulse, 
exercising the largest freedom of literary labor, and 
using the materials of sacred history as all writers of 
allegory use the materials from which they derive the 
lessons they inculcate. 

We need not analyze any more allegories, for those 
which we have already considered have brought before 
us abundant instances of such features of the biblical 
allegories as have been deemed somewhat surprising by 
persons not intimately acquainted with this species of 
writing in general literature. We have found men long 
since dead treated as gifted with perpetual life, like 
Demas in the " Pilgrim's Progress," and Zoi'lus, Anaxa- 
goras, and Thales in " Faust." We have found con- 
stant references to the circumstances of birth and 
ancestry, as in the allegory of "The Two Loves," the 
celestial and the terrestrial. We have found so many 
references to the meaning of proper names, and to 
geographical relations, that these characteristics seem 
to us more common than any others. In the light of 
the examples which we have examined, we come back 
to the New Testament, and read without surprise that 
" this Hagar is Mount Sinai in Arabia, and answereth 
to Jerusalem that now is " ; that " the son by the hand- 
maid is born after the flesh, but the son by the free 



ALLEGORY 133 

woman through promise " ; that Melchizedek in the 
book of Genesis is " without father, without mother, 
without genealogy, having neither beginning of days 
nor end of life," and in this way is " made like unto the 
Son of God"; that the name "Melchizedek" means 
"king of righteousness " ; and that the title, "King of 
Salem," means "king of peace." Such exuberance of 
fancy, such unrestrained freedom in the use of every 
feature of the record, belongs to the allegory in all 
literatures where it exists. Hence these biblical alle- 
gories are not in any peculiar sense " in accordance 
with the hermeneutical methods of the times," as Toy 
represents them. In all times and all literatures alle- 
gories have been produced with the same essential 
features, the minds of their authors haviug soared with 
unfettered wings through all the airy realms of imagi- 
nation. 

I might have illustrated these allegories further by 
comparing them to those of Philo and the rabbinic 
literature. This, however, has been done by many 
others already, who have wholly forgotten the allegories 
of general literature, and have sought to prove that the 
allegorists of the New Testament proceeded in a pecu- 
liar and specially Jewish way. My purpose has been 
the exact opposite ; and I have shown that the alle- 
gories of the New Testament are in no sense rabbinic 
or Jewish, but belong, in all their characteristics, to the 
wide field of allegory in the great literatures of the 
world, ancient and modern. Indeed, they resemble the 
Gentile allegories far more closely than the Jewish : 
they are sound, forceful, and ingenious, while the 
Jewish allegories partake of the stupidity which char- 



134 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

acterizes the Talmud from beginning to end, and which 
I have illustrated in our eleventh chapter. 1 

Do the writers of the allegories of the New Testa- 
ment offer them as proofs of their doctrine, or only as 
luminous embodiments of it ? 

If we render the Greek passive verb used in Gal. 
4 : 24 with the lexicons, and read, " Which things have 
an allegorical meaning," we shall find the allegory in 
the original history, and shall perhaps conclude that 
the Apostle Paul brought it forward as evidence of his 
teaching. But this definition of the Greek word, as we 
have seen, is not necessary, and may be inapplicable in 
this place. 

The other arguments of those who tell us that the 
New Testament writers present their allegories as 
proofs of doctrine are much weaker than this. Take 
for example the following sentence from Davidson : 

Apologists try to blunt the edge of these facts in their bearing 
on the nature of the writer's inspiration by saying that alle- 
gorical interpretations are used as illustrations rather than 

1 If a further reason were needed for my somewhat prolonged study of 
the Greek allegory in this place, it might be found in the fact, demon- 
strated by such scholars as Turretin, Eichhorn, Politz, Rosenmuller, 
Schutz, Fliigge, and Dopke, that the Jewish allegorical interpretation of 
the Old Testament had its origin in the Greek allegorical interpretation o r 
Homer and Hesiod, and was not thought of till the Jews came into contact 
with Greek literature ; so that even the rabbinic allegory is not exclusively 
Jewish, since it was born and nurtured in the tents of Japhet, and adopted 
by the sons of Shem only as a foreigner; useful, but constrained, out of 
place, and longing for home. Thus, if the allegories of the New Testa- 
ment were rabbinic, which they are not, it would be necessary still to 
examine their Greek parentage in order to understand them, as we become 
truly acquainted with a man only when we know his ancestry. See 
Dopke's " Hermeneutik der neutestamentlichen Schriftsteller," p. 104. 



ALLEGORY 135 

arguments ; forgetting that with Paul there was no difference 
between the two. 

How does Davidson know " that with Paul there was 
no difference between the two " ? Has he had some 
special revelation touching this matter ? The distinc- 
tion is one of the commonplaces of human thought, 
and is recognized everywhere, even by children and 
savages. Was the apostle then so feeble in mind as 
not to be aware of it ? 

Let us take another reason adduced by the same 
author : 

To the apostle's mind objective and subjective were one. He 
treated the history as a pure allegory without an objective basis. 
Such exegesis was not peculiar to him. It was that of his time 
and contemporaries. The typical sense in which he understood 
the narrative did not deserve another; it was the only one, ac- 
cording to the apostle, who looked upon the symbolical repre- 
sentation as the conveyancer of abstract truth, not of historical 
facts. 

Passing by the statement that "the apostle's mind " 
was incapable of distinguishing " objective and sub- 
jective," the tree of the mountain from the tree of his 
imagination, the Sarah of real life from the Sarah of 
his thoughts, let us ask what is the value of the other 
statement that he regarded history as allegory, and 
hence used it as evidence of Christian doctrine, be- 
cause his contemporaries treated the Old Testament in 
the same manner ? In the first place, " his contem- 
poraries " did not always treat the Old Testament his- 
tory in this manner. It is true that Philo sometimes 
regarded a narrative of the Old Testament as in itself 
purely allegorical ; but sometimes, again, he admitted 



136 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

the historical character of a narrative even while em- 
ploying it as the basis of an allegory. It is true that 
the Jewish rabbis did the same, and often produced 
their allegories as evidences of their doctrines. The 
most that can be said is that " his contemporaries " 
wavered. But let us admit for a moment that " his 
contemporaries " " treated the history as pure allegory 
without an objective basis," and hence as proof and not 
as illustration, and examine the argument derived from 
the statement. Let us say that we know "his contem- 
poraries " did this because their works show it. We 
are asked, then, to believe that the apostle did the same 
thing, not because his works show it, but because the 
works of Philo and the rabbis show that they did it. 
Or, let us say that they wavered in their views con- 
cerning the historic verity of the Old Testament nar- 
ratives, for this is the exact truth. Does it follow 
that the Apostle Paul wavered in his views concerning 
the historic verity of the Old Testament narratives ? 
We know that Philo and the rabbis wavered thus, be- 
cause their writings show it. According to the method 
of reasoning pursued by Davidson, we ought to believe 
that the apostle wavered, not because his writings 
show it, but because it is known that Philo and the 
rabbis wavered. This is a remarkable kind of logic, 
and only needs to be exhibited. Not only is there no 
trace of such wavering in the writings of the apostle, 
and no trace of any servile imitation of the rabbis, 
but there is abundant evidence in these productions 
that his modes of thought in general were utterly op- 
posed to theirs, and that he contended against many of 
their views from the beginning to the end of his min- 



ALLEGORY 137 

istry. If, therefore, the appeal is made to mere prob- 
ability, without any other evidence, that he regarded 
the narratives of the Old Testament as allegory rather 
than history, and hence as proof of doctrine, the deci- 
sion must be against the supposition. 

In the utter absence of all evidence to the contrary, 
then, we ought to suppose that the allegories of the 
New Testament are like the allegories of literature in 
general, merely luminous embodiments of the truth. 
If it be asked what they prove, I ask in return, what is 
proved by the " Faerie Oueene " or the " Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress " ? In neither is there any proof of a historic, a 
syllogistic, or a mathematical kind ; and neither is 
there, I am persuaded, in these great allegories of the 
New Testament. Yet, as the " Faerie Queene " and 
the "Pilgrim's Progress" make a deep and salutary 
impression upon the mind of the reader, so do the alle- 
gories of the New Testament. Luther says that the 
Apostle Paul was " a marvelous cunning workman in 
the handling of allegories." He continues: "Alle- 
gories do not strongly persuade in divinity ; but, like 
pictures, they beautify and set out the matter." " It is 
a seemly thing to add an allegory when the foundation 
is well laid and the matter thoroughly proved." We 
discover truth not merely by the logical processes of 
the intellect, but also through the imagination and the 
emotions ; and hence the Scriptures address all our 
powers of reason, of imagination, and of emotion. But 
the imagination and the emotions have yet another office : 
when the truth is demonstrated to the mind, it may re- 
main without operation upon the character and the 
conduct ; and it must still be taken into the soul, 



I38 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

through fear, through hope, through love, through the 
sense of propriety and beauty ; so that a large part of 
Holy Scripture is employed not in revealing the truth, 
or in proving it, but in commending it. If the preacher 
merely proved the truth of the gospel, and ceased to 
speak, he would not win a single soul to Christ ; when 
he has ended his proofs, he has but begun his real task ; 
he must go on to warn and entreat and constrain, with 
all the fervor of him " who loved us and gave himself 
for us." If these allegories are not presented by their 
writers as evidences, they are none the less precious, 
since they illuminate the truth otherwise evinced, and 
thus render it at once clear to the apprehension and at- 
tractive to the taste. Allegories, as Addison has said, 1 
" when well chosen, are like so many tracks of light 
in a discourse, that make everything about them clear 
and beautiful." 

1 " Spectator," number 421. 



VIII 

QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 

IN this chapter I shall consider the statement that 
the writers of the New Testament sometimes 
" quote by sound without regard to the sense." Kuenen, 
who employs this language, does not charge that the 
passages in question are quoted for proof ; but he 
seems to hold that even in quotations for purposes 
strictly rhetorical the reference of the original passage 
should be rigidly preserved. I shall fortify my answer 
to the difficulty thus raised by so large an array of ex- 
amples in ancient and modern literature as ought com- 
pletely to remove it. Instances of the kind which I 
am about to adduce are exceedingly abundant ; and I 
have rejected many which I might have employed had 
space permitted. Those which I present cover a wide 
range of occasions and of purposes ; they are caused 
by the desire to decorate, to illustrate, to shine with 
wit, to carry an audience by eloquence, or to puzzle the 
unwary and stimulate them to criticism. But they are 
all alike in that they give a reference to the language 
quoted which its author would not recognize as his own ; 
and in this respect they are quotations " by sound," 
rather than "by sense." The persons who bring for- 
ward the difficulty with which I here deal must have 
come upon hundreds of such passages, if they have 
read any literature of any people ; but they have not 

139 



140 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

observed, apparently because they have not read crit- 
ically. 

There are three cases to consider : first, a change of 
reference without a change of the language quoted, or 
of the meaning of its separate words ; secondly, a 
change of reference effected by a slight change of the 
language ; and thirdly, a change of reference effected 
by giving new meanings to the pivotal words. 

I. I shall first produce instances of a change of refer- 
ence which does not involve any material change of the 
words quoted, or of the senses in which the original 
writer employed them. 

1. Southey, in "The Doctor," has, without explana- 
tion, this example, in which he applies to the minute 
and strange forms of animal life revealed by the micro- 
scope these lines of " Paradise Lost," written with 
reference to demons in hell : 

The forms which are thus discovered might well be called 

Abominable, unutterable, and worse 

Than fables yet have feigned, or fear conceived, 

Gorgons and Hydras, and Chimeras dire. 

Here every word of the quotation preserves the sense 
in which it is employed by Milton, while the passage is 
made to describe objects of whose existence he was 
absolutely ignorant. 

2. Gladstone, in his " Gleanings of Past Years," 
Vol. VII., p. 34, speaks of great men who influence us 
even in their early life, and applies to them a line of 
Lycidas which refers only to the morning star : 

Others there have been who, from the time when their young 
lives first, as it were, peeped over the horizon, seemed at once to 
Flame in the forehead of the morning sky. 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 141 

3. In his "Gleanings of Past Years," Vol. IV., 
P- 339> ne closes his paper on Montenegro by saying : 

Miss Mackenzie and Miss Irby were able to bestow far more 
of time and care on a subject well worthy of them, and have 
probably made by much the most valuable contribution extant 
in our language, under this, as under other heads, to our knowl- 
edge of those South Slavonic provinces whose future will, we 
may humbly trust, redeem the miseries of their past. " Whereas 
thou hast been forsaken and hated, so that no man went through 
thee, I will make thee an eternal excellency, a joy of many 
generations." 

4. Lowell, in his "Among My Books," p. 353, 
speaks of the fears expressed by Burke and Johnson 
when the influence of Rousseau first made itself felt in 
the literary world, and quotes the words of Macbeth : 

Neither of them had the same feeling toward Voltaire, the 
man of supreme talent, but both felt that what Rousseau was 
possessed by was genius, with its terrible force either to attract 
or repel. 

By the pricking of my thumbs, 

Something wicked this way comes. 

5. Often the writer, in quoting thus for the purpose 
of decoration, and employing the quotation in a sense 
foreign to that which it first conveyed, accompanies it 
with a comment based altogether on its new meaning 
without giving a hint of the old. For example, Robert 
Hall, iu his sermon " On the Work of the Holy Spirit," 
has the following passage, dissuading his hearers from 
" grieving the Spirit of God " : 

We may fitly say on this, as Paul did on a different occasion, 
" Who is he that maketh us glad, but the same that is made 
sorry by us ? " Have we any other Comforter when he is with- 
drawn ? 



142 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Here the greatest of the English preachers reproduces 
a sentence written at first with reference to the sinning 
church at Corinth, which had been " made sorry " by 
the rebukes of the Apostle Paul. He applies it to the 
Holy Spirit without any statement that he is violently 
changing its application, and then proceeds to comment 
upon it at some length, quite as if it were designed 
from of old for the purpose for which he employs it. 

6. Johnson, in number 34 of his " Adventurer," 
warns his readers against a vicious life, which leads to 
wretchedness from which there is no return, and ap- 
plies to it the lines in which Virgil, in the "^Eneid," 
book VI., line 126, describes the way to Avernus : 

Facilis descensus Averni ; 
Noctes atque dies patet atri janua Ditis : 
Sed revocare gradum, superasque evadere ad auras, 
Hoc opus, hie labor est. 

Cranch translates the passage as follows : 

Easy the way 
Down to Avernus ; night and day the gates 
Of Dis stand open. But to retrace thy steps 
And reach the upper air, here lies the task, 
The difficulty here. 

Since the days of Johnson this passage has been 
employed a thousand times by as many writers, to rep- 
resent the irretrievable ruin caused by wastefulness and 
immorality ; and always, as in this instance, it is torn 
from its first connection and associated with a new 
theme, but with no explanation. 

7. Edward Everett, in his " Mount Vernon Papers," 
has two chapters on " Seven Critical Occasions and 
Incidents in the Life of Washington," illustrating the 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 143 

doctrine of Divine providence. At the close of the 
first, after narrating the dangers which young Wash- 
ington encountered during his expedition through un- 
inhabited lands to Venango, in 1753, he quotes from 
"Paradise Regained," the words in which, according to 
Milton, God declares his purpose to permit the ex- 
posure of Christ to temptation, and he employs them 
quite as if they had been uttered originally with refer- 
ence to the Father of his Country : 

To exercise him in the wilderness ; 
There shall he first lay down the rudiments 
Of this great warfare, ere I send him forth 
To conquer. 

Here the word "wilderness" is used by Milton and 
Everett in the same sense. New senses, however, are 
given by Everett to "warfare" and "conquer." Mil- 
ton uses them in the second of the senses now given 
in "Webster's International Dictionary," and Everett 
in the first. The quotation is thus a good example of 
both the first and third kinds examined in this chapter. 

8. In the " Theaetetus " of Plato, section 152, Soc- 
rates, by his skillful questioning, draws from one of 
his hearers the doctrine that all things are the product 
of motion. He says : 

Summon all philosophers — Protagoras, Heraclitus, Emped- 
ocles, and the rest of them, one after another, with the excep- 
tion of Parmenides — and they will agree with you in this. Sum- 
mon the great masters of either kinds of poetry — Epicharmus, 
the prince of comedy, and Homer, of tragedy ; when the latter 
sings of 

Ocean, the sire of gods, and mother Thetys, 

does he not mean that all things are the offspring of flux and 
motion ? 



144 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Socrates is well aware that this is not the meaning 
of Homer, for two reasons. First, Homer makes 
Ocean and Thetys the parents only of inferior deities, 
not of the greater. Then again, he himself does not 
believe that "all things are the offspring of flux," and 
he is going soon to disprove the assertion. Ocean was 
called the " sire of gods," because such a troop of infe- 
rior deities sprang from him. But Socrates quotes the 
phrase "sire of gods" as if it meant "sire of all the 
gods." He uses it not without a certain humor, as it 
was probably much quoted by those whose teaching he 
is about to oppose ; and this is purely a case of " quota- 
tion by sound, without regard to the real meaning." 
The meanings of all the words are preserved in the 
quotation, but it is caused by Socrates to refer to a 
doctrine of which the poet had never heard. 

9. In Plutarch's dialogue on " The Face Appearing 
in the Orb of the Moon," Sylla teaches that man is a 
tripartite being, composed of body, soul, and under- 
standing, the first perishing at the first death, the 
second being deserted at the second death, and linger- 
ing in a doubtful and shadowy existence in the moon, 
and the last only having real immortality. In the 
course of his argument he appeals to Homer : 

Of all that he ever wrote there is not any passage more divine 
than that in which, speaking of those who are departed this life, 
he says, 

Next these I saw Alcides' image move ; 

Himself is with the immortal gods above. 

Every Greek reader of Plutarch knew at once that 
Homer is not here " speaking of those who are de- 
parted this life," but only of Hercules, whose image 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 45 

was left in hades when he himself was deified. The 
whole passage was one of the most famous and familiar 
of the Odyssey, and every one knew that it repre- 
sents the dead in general as souls that had departed 
from the body. The lines about Hercules, however, 
were a fine illustration to the ear of the doctrine that 
man is a threefold being and that there is an event 
after death which may be likened to another death, the 
parting of the immortal mind from a shadowy soul. 
The reference of the passage is changed, while the 
senses of its words remain the same. 

10. In Plutarch's treatise on " The Delay of the Di- 
vine Justice," section 17, he argues that the soul is im- 
mortal, and says : 

If we had nothing of the divine within us, nothing that in the 
least resembled his perfection, nothing permanent and stable, 
but were only poor creatures, that, as Homer says, faded and 
dropped like the withered leaves. 

The reference is to the " Iliad," VI., 146. The 
whole passage is as follows in Bryant's translation : 

Like the race of leaves 
Is that of human kind. Upon the ground 
The winds strew one year's leaves; the sprouting wood 
Puts forth another brood, that sprout and grow 
In the spring season. So it is with man: 
One generation grows while one decays. 

As far as the sound of these words is concerned, 
they might be employed with either of two references, 
with either of two diverse thoughts in the mind : they 
might refer to man as possessed of a mortal body and 
an immortal soul, or to man as wholly mortal, both in 

N 



146 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

body and soul. Homer has the former reference in 
mind ; but Plutarch cites the passage as fitted to illus- 
trate the latter. He then proceeds to comment upon 
it adversely. Hackett writes as follows in his note on 
the quotation : 

Plutarch reads the passage manifestly as it meets the eye, and 
accommodates it to his purpose. The poet affirms nothing 
there in regard to the nature of the soul. He is speaking merely 
of human life and the rapid manner in which the different gen- 
erations of men pass away, one after another. The distinction, 
however, between the soul and the body, which he is not led tc 
notice in this passage, he asserts fully elsewhere, as also the 
kindred truths of the soul's future existence and a state of re- 
wards and punishments hereafter. 

11. The first line of this passage is quoted in still 
another alien sense in Strabo, book XIV., section 51. 
Speaking of Caunus, he writes : 

Stories of the following kind are related respecting the city. 
Stratonicus, the player on the cithera, seeing the Caunians 
somewhat dark and yellow, said that this was what the poet 
meant in the line: 

As are the leaves, so is the race of men. 

Homer had no thought of the color of the falling 
leaves, nor of the citizens of Caunus ; and the satire 
of Stratonicus gains sharpness and force by this new 
application of the familiar line. His assertion that 
"this was what the poet meant " is a part of the satire, 
and is an assertion only in form. 

12. In the "y£neid," VI., 275, Virgil says that "be- 
fore the courts of hades, and in its jaws, grief and 
vengeful cares have fixed their couches, and pale dis- 
eases dwell, and disconsolate old age." Seneca, in his 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 147 

one hundred and seventh letter, quotes the lines quite 
as if they referred to this world ; he changes the refer- 
ence of the word hades, but one would hardly say that 
he changes its meaning. 

13. In Cicero's "Letters to Atticus," II., 16, he speaks 
of the beginning of a letter as differing immensely 
from the end, and throws in part of the line in which 
Homer describes the Chimaera, "Iliad," VI., 181 : 

In front a lion; but behind 



14. In the same letter Cicero speculates about the 
plans of Gnasus, one of his acquaintances, with whose 
political conduct he is perplexed, and quotes what is 
said by Sophocles, Fragm. 753, of an actor: 

He plays no more on tiny treble pipes, 

But roars with wild blast his uncurbed storm of sound. 

Cicero's works are full of these quotations from the 
poets for mere decoration, and he uses them often with 
much wit. 

I shall now discuss those quotations of the New Tes- 
tament which are said by some writers to be of this 
kind. It will be seen that the reference of them to 
this class is not justified in every case, and that, 
where it has good grounds, they are not extreme in- 
stances of the practice which I have illustrated. 

1. In Matt. 21:9; Mark 11:9; Luke 19 : 38 and 
John 12 : 13, is a line from Ps. 1 18 : 26, quoted by "the 
multitudes that went before him and that followed," 
when Christ entered Jerusalem in lowly triumph : 

Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord. 



148 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

The psalm was one of a series of psalms sung at the 
Passover and called "the great Hallel." It was ap- 
propriate to any sacred festival. Perhaps it was com- 
monly used respectively by the people approaching the 
temple and by the choir of priests who received them 
with the words quoted. On this occasion the multi- 
tudes felt that the line was especially applicable to 
Jesus, whom they hailed as the Messiah. In Matt. 
2 3 : 39> Jesus, remembering that the people had re- 
ceived him with these words, takes leave of Jerusalem 
with a prediction in which he applies them to himself, 
precisely as in the instances that I have cited from 
general literature words spoken on one occasion are 
used with reference to other occasions to which they 
are appropriate. 

2. In Mark 9 : 48 our Lord weaves into his dis- 
course a sentence from Isa. 66 : 24 : " Where their 
worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched." He 
does not say that it is a quotation, or adduce it for 
proof. He finds the language adapted to set forth 
vividly the sufferings of the lost, and hence employs it, 
though, if taken literally, it is designed by the prophet 
to picture the perpetual burning of the carcasses of the 
ungodly. It may be questioned, however, whether the 
passage of the prophecy is to be taken literally. The 
whole context refers to the Messianic age, which it rep- 
resents by means of a series of images of blessing on 
the one hand and of wretchedness on the other. As 
the blessings are represented symbolically, so is the 
wretchedness ; and it may be that the perpetual gnaw- 
ing of the carcasses by the worm and the perpetual 
burning of them in the flame are intended by the Holy 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 49 

Spirit to bring before us eternal woes. In this case 
the employment of the words by our Lord would be 
strictly in keeping with their employment by the 
prophet, and an interpretation of them. I place the 
quotation in this chapter, however, because it is so 
often regarded as an adaptation of the prophetic lan- 
guage to a new theme. 

3. Another instance of this kind is possibly found 
at Rom. 2 : 24, where Isa. 52 : 5 is quoted with an ap- 
plication not made by t*he Old Testament writer : " The 
name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles through 
you, as it is written." The name of God was blas- 
phemed among the Gentiles of the apostolic age through 
the crimes of the Jews, to which the Apostle Paul has 
just referred. In the time looked at by the prophet, 
however, the name of God was blasphemed among the 
Gentiles, because the Jews, the people of God, were 
carried into captivity, and it seemed that their God was 
not able to save them. Thus the point of view of the 
prophet is not exactly the same with that of the apostle 
who uses his words. The supposition of Meyer that 
the apostle adopts the expression of the prophet as ap- 
propriate, without regard to the original circumstances 
which gave rise to it, is therefore well supported. 
Meyer finds an evidence of this illustrative appropria- 
tion of the Old Testament language in the fact that 
the formula of citation, "as it is written," stands at the 
end of the phrase, instead of at the beginning, where 
it is always placed in cases of formal quotations for the 
sake of proof. 

I accept this view. Yet I think it worthy of notice 
that the blaspheming of the name of God in the days of 



150 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Isaiah, while it had its immediate occasion in the 
weakness of the captive people, was really caused by 
their sins, for which they were delivered over to their 
enemies. Nowhere does this appear more clearly than 
in the prophecies of Isaiah, from which the apostle 
quotes. The blasphemy in the two cases, therefore, 
was more nearly akin than one might suppose at the 
first glance, and those cannot be censured who find 
something in the quotation besides the mere adoption 
of appropriate language. 

4. Another instance is the quotation of Isa. 52 : 7 
at Rom. 10 : 15 : "As it is written, How beautiful are 
the feet of them that bring glad tidings of good things." 
The prophet refers to the messengers who should ap- 
pear on the mountains near Jerusalem to announce the 
speedy return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile. 
The fact that the rabbis regarded the passage as Mes- 
sianic has led many to the assertion that the apostle 
takes the same view of it. Thus Hodge says that the 
prophetic passage 

is one of those numerous prophetic declarations which an- 
nounce in general terms the coming deliverance of the church, a 
deliverance which embraced, as the first stage of its accomplish- 
ment, the restoration from the Babylonish captivity. This, how- 
ever, is so far from being the blessing principally intended, that 
it derived all its value from being introductory to that more 
glorious deliverance to be effected by the Redeemer. 

There can be no objection to this view, for, as I have 
shown in the chapter on double reference, there are 
many passages of Scripture which look at some near 
event and also glance forward to " some far-off event." 
The apostle, however, does not say that he regards the 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 151 

passage as Messianic, and it is a sufficient explanation 
of his use of it to suppose it introduced into the epistle 
for rhetorical purposes only. Thus Toy says that the 
writer " perhaps merely adopts the words as appropriate 
to the preaching of the gospel," and adds that " the 
introductory formula, ' as it is written,' may be taken 
either way." 

5. At 1 Cor. 2 : 9, the Apostle Paul, speaking of the 
fact that God had kept as a mystery his great love and 
his plan of carrying it out in the salvation of the lost, 
till Christ came, says : 

But as it is written : 

Things which eye saw not, and ear heard not, 
And which entered not into the heart of man, 
Whatsoever things God prepared for them that love him. 

Whence are these words derived ? There is a pas- 
sage verbally somewhat like them at Isa. 64 : 4 : " For 
from of old men have not heard, nor perceived by the 
ear, neither hath the eye seen a God beside thee, which 
worketh for him that waiteth for him." Toy gives this 
as the passage quoted, with no hint that any other view 
is possible, and then goes on to say : 

The prophet, picturing the desolation of the exile, wishes that 
God would intervene on his people's behalf, and refers to the 
great things of which he is capable — probably with allusion to 
the preceding history of Israel — for those who wait trustfully for 
his help. Such great things God has prepared, says the apostle, 
in the mystery, formerly hidden but now revealed, of salvation 
in Christ, which is the wisdom of God, unsuspected by the wise 
men of the world, but made known to the believer by the Spirit. 
This he finds expressed in the words of the prophet, and he 
freely alters the original to suit his argument. 



152 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

The comment of Toy is thus threefold : (1) That the 
apostle finds in an Old Testament passage that which 
it does not contain ; (2) that he quotes it as a proof-text 
to support an argument ; and (3) that he freely alters 
it to make it suit his argument. 

To this I answer : (1) It is not at all certain that the 
quotation here is from any part of the Old Testament. 
Origen and other Fathers attribute it to the " Revela- 
tion of Elias," an extra-canonical book now lost ; and 
Zacharias of Chrysopolis declares that he had read the 
words in this book. With this agree t?he great critics 
Schrader, Bleek, Ewald, and Meyer, among the moderns. 
It is true that nowhere else does the Apostle Paul 
apply the formula, "as it is written," to a quotation 
from an uncanonical source ; but there is nothing in 
the formula itself to forbid him to use it as an intro- 
duction to any sort of quotation from any source what- 
ever. Yet one must respect the weight of this objec- 
tion to the theory now under consideration. (2) If we 
are to derive the quotation from the Old Testament, 
then Isa. 52 : 15 affords a far more probable source, as 
it is identical with the quotation in sense and similar 
to it in language. The prophet is speaking of the 
servant of Jehovah, the Messiah, and says that " kings 
shall shut their mouths at him : for that which had not 
been told them they shall see, and that which they had 
not heard shall they understand." Thus both the 
prophet and the apostle declare that the riches of God's 
mercy should remain a mystery until Christ came, 
when it should be revealed, and the language of the 
prophet is not very distant from that of the apostle ; 
while the passage previously considered is dissimilar in 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 53 

both thought and language, " hardly presenting even 
faint resemblances," as Meyer says. Moreover, the 
reference of the apostle to "rulers" is probably de- 
rived from the "kings" of the original passage. For 
these reasons I hold that he quotes from Isa. 52 : 15, 
with perhaps some remembrance of Isa. 64 : 4. (3) In 
any case, the apostle does not quote for proof. If we 
even grant that he is arguing, he does not " freely alter 
the original to suit his argument." He lays the chief 
stress upon a fact of which he was conscious : " How- 
beit, we speak wisdom among the perfect : yet a wis- 
dom not of this world, nor of the rulers of this world, 
which are coming to naught : but we speak God's wis- 
dom in a mystery, even the wisdom that hath been 
hidden." Let those who wish say that he argues from 
this fact as a basis. Even then it will remain true that 
he quotes, as Alford says, not to support his argument 
by authority, but merely to illustrate it. 

6. We have another instance of this sort at 1 Cor. 
15 : 55: " O death, where is thy victory ? O death, 
where is thy sting ? " The comment of Toy is worthy 
of adoption here : 

The prophetic passage is a declaration that Yahve will have 
no mercy on Ephraim, but will abandon him to death. " Shall 
I ransom thee from the hand of Sheol ? shall I redeem thee from 
death ? where are thy plagues, O death ? where thy pestilence, 
O Sheol? repentance shall be hid from my eyes." Death and 
Sheol are summoned to seize their prey. The apostle takes the 
questions in the inverse sense, using the words to express the 
triumph over death which God gives through Christ : rather a 
free adoption of the language than a quotation. 

7. At 2 Cor. 4 : 13, the writer says: "Having the 



154 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

same spirit of faith, according to that which is written, 
I believed, and therefore did I speak ; we also believe, 
and therefore also we speak." The quotation is from 
Ps. 116 : 10, and follows the Septuagint, though it is a 
question whether it also follows the Hebrew. Toy de- 
cides with certainty that it does not represent the 
Hebrew, which says, according to him : " I stand firm 
now in trust, though once I said in my haste, All men 
are liars." Thus the belief of the psalmist was not 
the cause of his speaking, but the corrective of it. 
This is by no means the view of the Hebrew text taken 
by the majority of the great Hebrew scholars. It is 
rejected by the Canterbury Revisers, by Hupfeld, by 
Hofmann, by Ewald, by Meyer, by Hengstenberg, and 
by many others, all of whom, though they differ among 
themselves as to the exact construction of the Hebrew, 
agree in the view that it gives the belief a harmonious 
and essentially causative, instead of an adversative re- 
lation to the speaking. Indeed, I have found no 
scholar, unless Luther can be called a scholar, who 
agrees with Toy in making the belief a corrective of 
the speaking. 

In any case, however, the quotation is merely illus 
trative, and we have seen by examples from all litera- 
tures how free such illustrative quotations are. 

II. I shall now bring forward instances of a change 
of reference effected by an intentional change of the 
language quoted. 

i. In his " Letters," p. 296, Cowper writes : " As to 
myself, I have" always the same song to sing ; well in 
body, but sick in spirit ; sick nigh unto death. 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 55 

Seasons return, but not to me returns 
God, or the sweet approach of heavenly day, 
Or sight of cheering truth, or pardon sealed, 
Or joy, or hope, or Jesus' face divine : 
But cloud, etc. 

I could easily set my complaint to Milton's tune, and accom- 
pany him through the whole passage on the subject of a blind- 
ness more deplorable than his." 

The quotation is from "Paradise Lost," III., 41-45. 
Every one knows that Milton wrote : 

Not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine, 
But cloud. 

Thus Cowper alters the language of Milton, and 
makes it express a thought wholly new. I call special 
attention to the fact that he accompanies the altered 
quotation with a commentary, in which he recognizes, 
and, to a certain extent, explains what he has done. 

2. Burke, in his speech on conciliation with America, 
quotes from the fourth Eclogue of Virgil : 

Facta parentis 
Jam legere, et quae sit poteris cognoscere virtus. 

This is the original. The orator found it necessary to 
alter the lines in order to make them fit a new connec- 
tion. In doing so, says Goodrich, in his " British 
Eloquence," p. 270, note 7, " he has changed some of 
the words and omitted others, so as to render the con- 
struction obscure." 

3. Pitt, in his first speech in reply to Fox, quoted 
from Horace, Ode XXIX., book III, lines 53-56: 



I56 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Laudo manentem; si celeres quatit 
Pennas, resigno quae dedit 

Here he paused, and seemed to reflect that the next 
words might be taken as a boast. They are : 

Et mea 
Virtute me involve 
I wrap myself in my virtue. 

His silence attracted every eye to him. " He drew his 
handkerchief from his pocket, passed it over his lips, 
and then, recovering as it were from a temporary em- 
barrassment, he struck his hand with great force upon 
the table, and finished the sentence in the most em- 
phatic manner, omitting the words referred to." The 
omission was understood ; the effect was electrical ; and 
the house burst forth into cheers. 

4. There is a somewhat violent instance in the speech 
of Lord Chatham in favor of the removal of the British 
troops from Boston. He quotes as follows from Vir- 
gil, "y£neid," VI., 566. 

Rhadamanthus habet durissima regna, 
Castigatque aaditque. 

But Virgil says that Rhadamanthus holds his stern 
rule, punishing those whose crimes he hears. By 
omitting the word " dolos " and placing in italics the 
"auditque," the orator causes the poet to say that 
Rhadamanthus punishes and afterward hears. He 
means thus to charge that the British Government had 
punished the American colonies first, and heard them 
afterward. 1 

1 Goodrich's " British Eloquence," p. 129, note 5. 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 57 

5. On the title-page of the " Letters of Junius " are 
the words : " Stat nominis umbra" ; " He stands the 
shadow of a name." They are from Lucan's " Phar- 
salia," book I., line 135, where they refer to Pompey. 
But in the original there is one word more than in the 
quotation : " Stat magni nominis umbra " ; " He stands 
the shadow of a mighty name." Junius omits the word 
"mighty" through modesty, as he applies the line to 
himself. 

6. In Gladstone's " Gleanings of Past Years," Vol. 
I., p. 206, he introduces a line of Horace, from Ode I., 
book XVI, but changes it to suit its new connection. 

There can hardly be a doubt, as between America and the 
England of the future, that the daughter, at some no very dis- 
tant time, will, whether fairer or less fair, be unquestionably yet 
stronger than the mother. 

O matre forti filia fortior. 
Horace wrote : 

O matre pulchra filia pulchrior; 

but this would be inapplicable to the purpose of Mr. 
Gladstone, and hence he substitutes " strong " and 
"stronger" for "fair" and "fairer." 

7. Southey, in his " Doctor," p. 268, has the follow- 
ing of the marriage of his hero : " What Shakespeare 
says of the Dauphin and the Lady Blanche might seem 
to have been said with a second sight of this union : 

Such as she is, 
Is this our Doctor, every way complete." 

The quotation is from "King John," II., 2. But 
every lover of Shakespeare knows that his words are : 



158 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Such as she is, in beauty, virtue, birth, 

Is the young Dauphin, every way complete. 

8. In Plato's " Theaetetus," section 1 54, Socrates 
asks his hearer if a thing can become more except by 
increasing. The answer is, No. "Well and divinely 
said, my friend," he exclaims. " And if you reply « Yes,' 
there will be a case for Euripides ; ' for our tongue will 
be unconvinced, but not our mind.' ' The quotation 
is from the "Hippolytus," line 612, a famous and im- 
pious saying : 

My tongue hath sworn ; my mind is still unsworn. 

Had Socrates quoted the words of Euripides literally, 
they would have been inappropriate. 

9. In Plato's "Republic," book VIII., section 545, 
Socrates speaks of the possibility of discord in the 
kind of city under discussion at the moment. Here 
first he introduces the Muses, and lets them answer 
for him : " Shall we, after the manner of Homer, pray 
the Muses to tell us ■ how strife was first kindled ? ' ' 
The reference is to the opening lines of the " Iliad," 
where the poet asks the Muse to say, "what god the fatal 
strife provoked," and not " how strife was first kindled." 
Since Socrates is not regarding the strife of the city 
as the result of the interference of a god, the line, in 
its original form, would not be suitable. 

10. In the " Odyssey," book XIX., line 163, Penelope 
bids the disguised Ulysses tell her where he was born, 
and of what race, and adds : 

For thou art not from the ancient oak, nor from stone, 
implying that he is therefore human. The line is in 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 59 

the second person. But in the "Apology," in order to 
adapt it to his meaning, Plato quotes it in the first per- 
son, and adds a few words to bring it into proper rela- 
tion with its new context : "As Homer says : 

Not of wood, nor of stone was I born, but of man." 

11. In the "Lesser Hippias," section 365, Plato 
produces a passage from the " Iliad," IX., 308. He 
changes it to suit his course of thought, which is as 
follows : Hippias is maintaining that Achilles is repre- 
sented by Homer to be the most straightforward of 
mankind. To prove this, he quotes a speech of 
Achilles, who says, in reality : 

I must frankly speak my fixed resolve. 

I will speak what seems to me the wisest course. 

But Hippias represents Achilles as saying : 

I will speak the word I intend to act. 
I will speak that which shall be done. 

It is evident at a glance that these changes, though 
doing no special violence to the thought, are in the 
interest of the argument that he was a most sincere 
man, and always did the thing he said. 

12. In Plato's "Republic," book II., section 363, 
Glaucon represents Homer as advocating justice on the 
ground that he who practises it becomes rich : 

Homer has a very similar strain, for he speaks of one whose 
fame is 

As the fame of some blameless king who, like a god, 
Maintains justice ; to whom the black earth brings forth 
Wheat and barley, whose trees are bowed with fruit, 
And his sheep never fail to bear, and the sea gives him fish. 



l60 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

The next line is discreetly omitted, for had it been 
quoted it would have shown that these blessings are 
considered as coming, not to the wise king, but to the 
people under him, while to him comes the renown of 
such prosperous governing. 

13. In his " Rhetoric," book II., chapter 2, section 
7, Aristotle speaks of anger produced by disrespect 
from an inferior, and quotes from the " Iliad," II., 196 : 

Great is the wrath of divine-bred kings. 

The line in the original speaks of Agamemnon alone ; 
and Aristotle changes it to the plural, because he 
wishes to illustrate a universal rule. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

dofibz 3 k fJ-^ya^ £&Te ocozpe- 



THE QUOTATION. 

6'jfibz ok fisfaz serve StOTps- 

(fSCOV fi(LGlir { LOV. 



14. In Aristotle's "Politics," 1253, 9, he cites the 
" Iliad," IX., 63, where Homer says that the lover of 
civil war is " clanless, lawless, heartless." But Aristotle 
reverses the statement, and " seems to conceive Homer," 
writes Newman, 1 " to say that the ' clanless, lawless, 
heartless ' man is a lover of civil war." 

1 5. In the " Odyssey," VIII., 487, are these lines, as 
Bryant translates them : 

Demodochus, above all other men 
I give thee praise, for either has the Muse, 
Jove's daughter, or Apollo, visited 
And taught thee. 



Politics of Aristotle." YV. L. Newman, Vol. II., p. 121, note 4. 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND l6l 

Maximus Tyrius, in his dissertation entitled " Is there 
a Sect in Philosophy according to Homer," quotes the 
lines in praise of Homer, putting the word Homer in 
the place of Demodochus. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

Arj[iodux\ i^oya oy ae ftporajv 

alvi^ofi S.~duTa)W 
yj aiye Moutr idida^s, Atbq, 



THE QUOTATION. 

Eqoya oq as j9poza)p, & 
*0/jqp\ acvi^oju x. t. L 



1 6. Maximus Tyrius, Dissertation XIX., at the end 
of the sixth paragraph, represents Homer as saying : 

By mortals ; but the immortals all things know. 

This quotation is from the " Odyssey," X., 304. 1 
" Maximus," says Taylor " in order to adapt this line 
to his purpose, for the last word d'juavra: has substi- 
tuted taaffe." Instead of "all things can," he has 
"all things know." Strictly speaking, there is no 
violence done to Homer, since omnipotence implies 
omniscience. 

17. Maximus Tyrius, in his dissertation on "The 
Pleasure of Philosophical Discourse," quotes a line 
from Homer, which Taylor translates freely thus : 

But virtue lost can never be regained. 

It is from the indignant remonstrance of Achilles in 

the " Iliad," IX., 408. The warrior speaks of human 

life: 

But life, once lost, can never be regained. 

1 See Taylor's translation, Vol. II., p. 193. 



l62 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Thus Maximus Tyrius, who is writing of virtue, adapts 
the line to his purpose by substituting the word virtue 
for the word life. 



THE ORIGINAL. 

'Avdpbz os ipuyji TtdXtv iXdetv 

OUTS AeiGTYj oud" kXsTTj. 



THE QUOTATION. 
AvdpOQ OS o\[)ST7] X. T. A. 



1 8. In the letter of Julian to Themistius, the phi- 
losopher, he quotes from the " Politics " of Aristotle, 
book III., section 15. Aristotle says: 

If any one should think it best for a nation to be governed by 
a king, what shall be determined with regard to his children ? 
Must his descendants also reign ? If they must, however inca- 
pable, much inconvenience may ensue. But will not the king 
leave his sons his successors, if he has it in his power ? 

In the time of Aristotle it was a question with many 
kings whether or not they had the power to transmit 
the sceptre to their sons, and hence the doubt expressed 
in the last sentence of the passage. It was a question 
which Aristotle, who was not a king, could lightly ask. 
In the age of Julian, it was also a serious question with 
the Roman emperors. But Julian, now associated with 
Constantius on the throne, would not care to contem- 
plate the difficulty, or to suggest it to another. Hence 
he changes the form of the sentence, and makes Aris- 
totle say, without any doubt : 

Will not the sovereign in possession leave the government to 
his sons ? 

19. At the close of his " Oration on the Departure 
of Sallust," Julian quotes two lines from Homer ; but 
they are a mosaic from various places ; " Odyssey," 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 



163 



XXIV., 401, 405, and X., 562 ; the words being so 
altered in grammatical form and so intermingled with 
new words as to adapt them to the use to which he 
applies them. 



THE QUOTATION. 

Ou?J re xac ptiya yalpe^ deoi 

Si roc dlfita oo7ev, 
vogtYjGcu olxovde tpikqv ec 

rrarpcda ydiav. 



THE ORIGINAL. 
XXIV., 401. 

Oudi z dt'optivotac, deol ds a 
dvyyayov abrol. 
XXIV., 405. 
Noarijcravrd as deup\ y dyye- 

AOV Orp'JVCOpLSV. 

X., 562. 
(Pdade vu tcoo olxovde, (piXrjV 
£C Tiarpida ydtav. 

Which Duncombe translates thus : 

With health, with joy to his loved native shore, 
May the kind gods my honored friend restore. 

20. In his letter to the philosopher Jamblichus, 
Julian says : 

So that Homer, I think, if he were to return to life, might 
with much more reason apply that line to you : 

'El~ <5' art -ou ^ujus xarepuxsrat ebpii x6<7fj.a>. 

One still somewhere living the wide world keeps back. 

But Homer wrote " supco zovrsc" : "the wide ocean." 
This, however, was inapplicable to the philosopher, 
whom Julian would say, the fortunate world still re- 
tains; and hence the wording is slightly changed. 

21. I mention again the lines from Ennius 1 in the 



Long's " Orations of Cicero," IV., p. 181, note. 



164 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

"Oration of Cicero against Piso/' section 19, of which 
Long says : " Cicero has slightly altered the verse to 
suit his sentence." 

22. I cite again the " Tusculan Disputations," XX., 
45. The first of the two quotations here is "from the 
' Medea ' of Ennius, but altered by Cicero. 1 

23. In his eighty-eighth letter Seneca upbraids the 
vanity of astronomers who observe the stars. He 
quotes from the " Georgics," L, 424. Virgil wrote : 

If thou give attention to the rapid sun, and the moons 
In order following. 

Virgil refers to farmers ; but Seneca is speaking of a 
class of men whose special study is the stars, and hence 
he changes "moons" to "stars." 

I shall now present those quotations of the New 
Testament which are often said to belong to this class. 
The reader will observe that they are few in number, 
that not all of them are certainly of the kind now under 
consideration, and that none of them is extreme in its 
use of the freedom which the foregoing examples illus- 
trate. 

1. In Rom. 10 : 18 there is a quotation from Ps. 

19 14: 

Their sound went out into all the earth, 
And their words unto the ends of the world. 

The Hebrew reads : 

Their line went forth. 

The Septuagint translated the Hebrew word for " line " 
by the Greek word for "sound," and the Apostle Paul 

1 Cicero's "Tusculan Disputations." Thos. Chase. P. 145, note. 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 165 

adopted the Septuagint form of the verse possibly 
because the word " sound " was better adapted to his 
purpose than the word "line." Or, he may have 
adopted it merely because he found it in the only Bible 
which his readers knew, and did not deem a resort to 
the Hebrew necessary, a use of the Septuagint amply 
illustrated in our first chapter. The psalmist refers to 
the heavenly bodies, and Paul adopts the lines as elo- 
quently expressive of the course of the gospel. " It, 
like the sun and moon and stars," Toy writes, "had 
traversed the whole earth ; a natural hyperbole. There 
is here," he continues, "no allegorizing of the psalm." 
It should be added, however, as Bengel and Alford 
have observed, that the psalm itself is " a comparison 
of the sun, and the glory of the heavens, with the word 
of God"; so that the apostle is merely carrying out 
the illustration which he found in the context from 
which he quotes. 

2. There is an undoubted instance in which a change 
of language made by the Septuagint is adopted by the 
New Testament writer because it fits the passage for 
its new connection. But in this case again the phrase- 
ology is employed for decoration or illustration, and not 
for proof. The instance is at Heb. 10 : 37, 38, where 
Hab. 2 : 3, 4 is quoted. Habakkuk looks forward to 
the invasion of Palestine by the Chaldaeans, which took 
place about b. c. 606. He predicts that the just and 
faithful shall be delivered, and exhorts his readers to 
patience by the assurance that deliverance will come, 
though it may tarry. "The vision" of deliverance, he 
says, " is yet for the appointed time, and it hasteth 
toward the end, and shall not lie ; though it tarry, wait 



1 66 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

for it ; because it will surely come, it will not delay." 
The enemy is proud : " his soul is puffed up, it is not 
upright in him ; but the just shall live by his faith," or 
"in his faithfulness." 

In the Septuagint are two marked changes. First, 
instead of saying that the vision of deliverance will 
surely come, this version says that "he," God, will 
surely come to deliver, and shall not delay. This 
change is accepted by the author of the Epistle to the 
Hebrews, as the quotation is not for proof; as it makes 
no difference in the essential meaning of the passage 
whether deliverance is surely coming for God, or God 
is surely coming in his providence to deliver ; and as 
the form of the sentence in the Septuagint is especially 
adapted to the connection in which the writer places it. 

The case is different, however, with the second 
change. The writer of the epistle alters the order of 
the phrases. He finds in the Septuagint the declara- 
tion : " If he shrink back, my soul hath no pleasure in 
him ; but my just one shall live by faith." He exactly 
reverses this, and quotes as follows : 

My righteous one shall live by faith : 

And if he shrink back, my soul hath no pleasure in him. 

It is the opinion of Toy that he transposes the clauses 
of the verse thus in order that he may add the sentence 
immediately following : " But we are not of them that 
shrink back unto perdition, but of them that have faith 
unto the saving of the soul." But if any one will take 
the trouble to read the lines in the Septuagint form, and 
then in the New Testament form, adding the next verse 
in each instance, he will see that Toy is mistaken, and 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 67 

that no rhetorical advantage whatever is gained by the 
inversion. It must be the result therefore of memory- 
quoting, which I have considered elsewhere. 

The quotation as a whole is apposite in the extreme. 
Those to whom the original passage was addressed were 
plunged into terrible trials, as were the Hebrew Chris- 
tians of the apostolic age. The prophet would console 
them and nerve them to patient endurance, which was 
also the object of the Christian writer. The truth 
which the prophet uttered for this purpose was one that 
can never lose its power to stimulate and comfort the 
good who suffer under the oppression of the evil ; it is 
the certainty that God will protect his people, and that 
those shall live who trust in his grace. 

III. I now adduce instances of a change of refer- 
ence produced by using language in a new sense. 

I begin with a quotation from Jowett, " Epistles of 
St. Paul," Vol. I., p. 356. He says : 

The "point of force" of a quotation in our own literature 
frequently consists in a slight, or even a great, deviation from 
the sense in which it was uttered by its author. Its aptness 
lies in its being at once old and new ; often in bringing into 
juxtaposition things so remote that we should not have imagined 
that they were connected ; sometimes in a word rather than in a 
sentence, even in the substitution of a word, or in a logical in- 
ference not wholly warranted." 

This is true, except that we do not honestly make 
such quotations for proof, but rather to illustrate, to 
decorate, to commend our theme by an evident play of 
wit, to give our thought a graceful dress of language 
and the light of some subtle analogy. 



1 68 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

I shall now illustrate these statements of Jowett by 
numerous examples. 

1. The one hundred and thirty-first number of the 
"Tattler" is devoted to an essay by Addison on the 
danger of using wine manufactured chemically : 

These subterranean philosophers are daily employed in the 
transmutation of liquors, and, by the power of magical drugs 
and incantations, raising under the streets of London the choicest 
products of the hills and valleys of France. They can squeeze 
Bourdeaux out of the sloe, and draw Champagne from an 
apple. Virgil, in that remarkable prophecy (Eel. IV., 29), 

Incultisque rubens pendebit sentibus uva, 
The ripening grape shall hang on every thorn, 

seems to have hinted at this art, which can turn a plantation of 
northern hedges into a vineyard. 

Here the word "thorn" is made to mean a "northern 
hedge," and the essayist seems seriously to assert that 
the line quoted from Virgil was designed by its author 
to foretell the modern chemical manufacture of wine. 
Of course the essayist knows that this is not its mean- 
ing, and that he is employing it quite aside from its 
real significance. Of course, also, he is aware that his 
readers know the same. He does not really intend to 
give it such explanation ; but under the guise of a com- 
mentary he finds an illustration of his theme at once 
ingenious, startling, and pleasing. 

2. We have an instance of altered meaning almost 
exactly like this in number two hundred and twenty- 
three of the "Spectator," where Addison writes: 

When I reflect upon the various fate of those multitudes of 
ancient writers who flourished in Greece and Italy, I consider 
time as an immense ocean, in which many noble authors are 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 169 

entirely swallowed up, many very much shattered and damaged, 
some quite disjointed and broken into pieces, while some have 
wholly escaped the common wreck ; but the number of the last 
is very small (Virg. JEn. I., 122), 

Apparent rari nantes in gurgite vasto, 

One here and there floats on the vast abyss. 

Virgil uses the word " abyss " in its natural sense, of the ocean, 
and Addison bends it to mean the ocean of time. 

3. The following is from essay fifty-seven of "The 
World " : 

While the sons of great persons are indulged by tutors and 
their mother's maids at home, the intended parson is confined 
closely to school, from whence he has the misfortune to be sent 
directly to college, where he continues, perhaps, half a score of 
years, drudging at his courses, and where for want of money he 
may exclaim with Milton that 

Ever-during dark 
Surrounds me : from the cheerful ways of men 
Cut off; and, for the book of knowledge fair, 
Presented with a universal blank. 

Which is as much as to say that he is totally in the dark as to 
what is doing abroad, and that while other men are going on in 
the cheerful ways of drinking and gaming, and improving their 
minds by Mr. Hoyle's book of knowledge, the whole world is a 
blank to the poor parson who, in all probability, grows old in a 
country cure, and owes to the squire of the parish all his knowl- 
edge of mankind. 

Let the reader observe that entirely new senses are 
given here to the expressions "dark," "cheerful ways 
of men," and "book of knowledge," and also that the 
writer, in his commentary, seems to claim that Milton 
meant ignorance by the first, a vicious life by the 
second, and "Hoyle's Games" by the third. A 
Japanese, unacquainted with our literature, and reading 



170 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

the passage without a guide, would probably interpret 
it in this manner. So would a critic who wished to 
accuse the essayist. The ordinary unprejudiced English 
reader, however, finds no difficulty. 

4. Sometimes the writer notifies us that his quotation 
is not used in the original signification. The twenty- 
second essay of "The Observer" is devoted to the 
condemnation of gambling. The writer personifies this 
vice, and addresses it thus : 

I may say to my antagonist in the words, though not altogether 
in the sense, that the angel Gabriel does to his, 

Satan, I know thy strength, and thou know'st mine. 

But far oftener we have no such warning, since we are 
supposed to be acquainted with the passage and able to 
appreciate for ourselves the ingenuity of its new appli- 
cation without the aid of a commentary. 

5. Bunyan, in the "Pilgrim's Progress," leads us to 
the "House Beautiful." The porter asks: "What is 
your name?" The pilgrim answers : 

My name is now Christian ; but my name at first was Grace- 
less : I came of the race of Japheth, whom God will persuade to 
dwell in the tents of Shem. 

The reference is to Gen. 9 : 27. But the word "Japh- 
eth" is used to signify those who are aliens from the 
true religion, and the word "Shem" those who possess 
it. In Genesis the prediction is ethnographical and 
political. 

6. In the fifty-eighth essay of " The Looker On " 
the writer describes the effect of a good dinner : 

Mr. Blunt, whose quarrels with his neighbors I have remarked 
upon in my third number, tried the potency of a good dinner 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 171 

with wonderful success in rubbing off old scores, and effacing 
all impressions to his disadvantage ; and those who have taken 
opinions respecting him on the Monday, and again on the 
Wednesday, have been astonished at the change in the public 
sentiments wrought by the intervention of a single day, during 
which the whole neighborhood was treated in a sumptuous 
manner. 

And fools, that went to scoff, returned to pray. 

The line refers, in its original position, to fools who go 
to church to scoff and return transformed and praying 
to God, whom they before mocked. The words "to 
pray " have the meaning of to worship, to adore, in a 
religious sense, and then of "to ask," in an ordinary 
worldly sense. The poet uses them with the former 
signification ; the essayist with the latter. 

7. In Gladstone's " Gleanings of Past Years," Vol. 
I., p. 206, he introduces a line of Horace, but in a sense 
never thought of by its author : 

There can be hardly a doubt, as between America and the 
England of the future, that the daughter, at some no very distant 
time will, whether fairer or less fair, be unquestionably yet 
stronger than the mother. 

O matre forti filia fortior. 

A critic like Kuenen would object to this quotation on 
the ground that the words "mother" and "daughter" 
are made to have a meaning utterly different from that 
which the Latin poet found in them, since he had in 
mind persons and not countries. 1 

8. Another instance is the following from Robert 
Hall's sermon on " The Discouragements and Supports 
of the Christian Minister," near the close : 

!See pp. 44, 45. 



1 72 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

However inattentive others may be to the approach of our 
Lord, can it ever vanish from our minds, who are detained by 
him in his sanctuary on purpose to preserve it pure, to trim the 
golden lamps, and maintain the hallowed fire, that he may find 
nothing neglected or in disorder when "he shall suddenly come 
to his temple, even the messenger of the covenant, whom we 
delight in." 

This quotation forms a magnificent decoration of the 
discourse, although its original use was quite different. 
In the Bible it is a prediction of the coming of God to 
the second temple in Jerusalem. Here the church is 
the temple, and the coming of God is either at death 
or at the last day. 

9. Webster presents us another example in his first 
oration at Bunker Hill : 

Knowledge, in truth, is the great sun in the firmament. Life 
and power are scattered with all its beams. The prayer of the 
Grecian champion, when enveloped in unnatural clouds and 
darkness, is the appropriate political supplication for the people 
of every country not yet blessed with free institutions : 

Dispel this cloud, the light of heaven restore, 
Give me to see ; and Ajax asks no more. 

Here the orator quotes words originally spoken with 
reference to physical darkness and natural vision, and 
applies them to mental ignorance and mental education. 
There are three words in particular in the quotation 
which he bends to senses entirely different from those 
in which they are employed in the poem; they are 
"cloud," "light," and "see." 

10. The quotation in such cases is often made on ac- 
count of the sound of the words, and not on account 
of the meaning they convey in their original position ; 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND IJ3 

and the skillful bending of the old familiar sounds to 
unexpected meanings is a part of the charm of this 
method of quoting. Thus Edward Everett says, in his 
" Questions of the Day " : 

That was the State mystery into which men and angels de- 
sired to look; hidden from ages, but revealed to us: 

Which kings and prophets waited for, 
And sought, but never found : 

a family of States independent of each other for local concerns, 
united under one government for the management of common 
interests and the prevention of internal feuds. 

Here we find a fragment from I Peter I : 12 ; a frag- 
ment from Col. 1 : 26 ; and a fragment of a versifica- 
tion of Luke 10 : 24, ail apparently declared in so 
many words to refer to the constitution of the United 
States. The agreement of these extracts with the 
orator's thought is only in sound, for a new sense is 
given to the words "mystery," "ages," and "revealed." 

11. Ruskin, in his "Sesame and Lilies," p. 117, 
urges women to help their degraded sisters to a pare 
and beautiful life, and directs them to go forth calling : 

Come into the garden, Maud, 

For the black bat, night, has flown, 
And the woodbine spices are wafted abroad, 

And the musk of the roses blown. 

Here again no explanation is offered, though a new 
meaning is given to the word "night," and thus a new 
reference to the whole passage. 

12. Plato, in the "Protagoras," represents Socrates 
as calling on the celebrated Sophist of this name, and 
as afterward relating the story of his visit. He speaks 



174 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

first of the persons whom he found with Protagoras. 
After mentioning several, he adds, quoting from the 
"Odyssey," book XL, line 582 : 

My eyes beheld Tantalus ; 

for Prodicus, the Cean, was at Athens, and lay in bed, wrapped 
in sheepskins and bedclothes. 

Here no one needs to be told that Prodicus was not 
Tantalus, though the word Tantalus is used in such a 
way as to identify it with Prodicus in meaning. 

13. In Plato's "Republic," book II., section 379, 
Socrates maintains that God is good, and hence the 
author only of good to men. He therefore condemns 
the passage in the " Iliad," XXIV., 527, where Achilles 
says that : 

At the threshold of Zeus lie two casks full of lots, one of good, 
the other of evil, 

and he to whom Zeus gives a mixture of the two 
Sometimes meets with good, at other times with evil fortune. 

He especially condemns the line : 

Zeus, who is the dispenser of good and evil to us. 

His whole argument here turns upon the supposition 
that the word "evil " in these lines means either moral 
evil, wrong, or at least permanent and irretrievable 
injury. The Greek word, like our word evil, may be 
used in the ordinary sense of misfortune, and is so used 
by Achilles ; or it may be used of injustice, sin, crime, 
or of some injury proceeding from wicked malevolence ; 
and Socrates seems to quote it in one of these latter 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 75 

senses. To quote it in its Homeric sense would have 
done violence to his own line of thought. 

14. In Plato's "Lysis," section 212, Socrates quotes 
from Solon to prove that an object may be dear, even 
if it give no returning love. If we supposed the con- 
trary, then we should be obliged to suppose, that 

They are not lovers of horses whom the horses do not love in 
return, nor lovers of quails, nor of dogs, nor of wine, nor of gym- 
nastic exercises, who have no return of love; no, nor of wisdom, 
unless wisdom loves them in return. Or perhaps they do love 
them; but they are not beloved by them; and the poet was wrong 
who sings: 

Happy the man to whom his children are dear, and steeds having single 
hoofs, and dogs of chase, and the stranger of another land. 

Every reader of the Greek perceives that the word 
rendered "are dear" can refer only to the " children," 
and not to the horses and other objects mentioned. 
That Socrates quotes the passage as if it proved the 
other objects to be "dear" has caused infinite wonder 
and debate to scholars. Probably he does it only to 
teach his young hearers to listen critically. It is suffi- 
cient for us to observe that he does it, whatever his rea- 
son, and thus diverts the words widely from their 
original meaning. 

15. Homer uses the word air, drjo, sometimes in the 
sense of atmosphere, and sometimes in the sense of 
mist and cloud. Bearing this fact thus indicated in 
mind, let us turn to Plutarch's treatise on " The Prin- 
ciple of Cold," section 9, where he maintains that the 
atmosphere was at first dark. The poets, he says, 
" call the air darkness " : 



176 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Thick was the air around our barks ; the moon 
Shone not in heaven. 

Here Homer means mist and cloud, and certainly 
not darkness. The quotation, however, is apposite as 
an ornament, lighting up the argument and contribu- 
ting interest to an abstruse and difficult theme, though 
every Greek reader would know that it is used quite 
out of its original sense, and though the quotation is 
in the form of a proof. 

16. In Plato's "Laches," section 201, Socrates urges 
his hearers to place themselves under teachers, that 
they may learn. He continues : 

If any one laughs at us for going to school at our age, I would 
quote to them the authority of Homer, who says that 

Modesty is not good for a needy man. 

The Greek word which Homer employs for " needy " 
has a form which refers to physical destitution only, 1 
and never to mental. Plato employs it as if it referred 
to intellectual destitution. Having quoted it in this 
new sense, he proceeds to draw an inference of duty 
from the quotation : 

Let us then, regardless of the remarks which are made upon 
us, make the education of the youths our own education. 

17. In Lucian's "Parasite," Simo defends the life 
of the parasite by various arguments. Among other 
authorities he quotes Homer, who, he says 

celebrates, full of admiration, the life of the parasite as the 
only one truly happy and enviable. 

1 It is the perfect participle of xpao/xeu, used as an adjective. For the 
limitation of the meaning of this form, see any lexicon. 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 77 

The citation follows from the " Odyssey," IX., 5. This 
note from Tooke, Vol. I., p. 149, will exhibit his method 
of proof : 

Homer employs the word nko?, and seems, by connecting it 
with the adjective x a P L ^ Te P 0V , to mean nothing more than the most 
agreeable that can be conceived ; but because tc'Aos also signi- 
fies ultimate end, and in the language of the Stoics and other 
philosophers sometimes implies the supreme good, the parasite 
avails himself of that ambiguity. 

The parasite transfers the word from one sense to an- 
other, half in humor, knowing that the hearer will not 
be misled, and wishing, perhaps, to satirize the philoso- 
phers for the manner in which they appealed to Homer 
to prove their doctrines. 

18. In his treatise on "Isis and Osiris," Plutarch 
writes as follows. I quote from Goodwin's translation : 

Cleanthes somewhere saith that Proserpine, or Persephone, is 
the breath of air which is carried through corn and then dies; 
and again a certain poet saith of reapers, 

Then when the youth the legs of Ceres cut. 

For these men seem to me to be nothing wiser than such as 
would take the sails, the cables, and the anchor of a ship for the 
pilot; the yarn and the web for the weaver; and the bowl or the 
mead or the ptisan for the doctor. And they over and above 
produce in men most dangerous and atheistical opinions, while 
they give the names of gods to those natures and things that have 
in them neither soul nor sense. 

Again in his treatise on love, he says : 

Others affirm Venus to be nothing but our concupiscence; that 
Mercury is no more than the faculty of speech; that the Muses 
are only the names for the arts and sciences; and that Minerva 
is only a fine word for prudence. And thus you see into what 



178 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

an abyss of atheism we are like to plunge ourselves, while we 
go about to range and distribute the gods among the various pas- 
sions, faculties, and virtues of men. 

Yet Plutarch falls into the very habit which he thus 
criticises. Thus, in his treatise on "Love," section 17, 
he quotes from the "Antigone" of Sophocles, the 
784th line, which portrays Eros, Love, as 

Slumbering on a girl's soft cheek; 

Sophocles did not mean that the god really 
Slumbers on a girl's soft cheek; 

he used his name merely as a synonym of loveliness, 
of beauty, of that which kindles the sentiment of love. 
This was evident to Plutarch, and to all his Greek read- 
ers ; yet he quotes the line to contradict it in a passage 
which refers to the god as a person, thus completely 
reversing its meaning. 

19. Again, in his treatise entitled "How a Young 
Man Ought to Hear Poems," he has a long discussion 
of Greek words which are used in different senses. 
Among them he mentions the names of the gods : 

To begin with the gods, we should teach our youth that poets, 
when they use the names of gods, sometimes mean properly the 
names of divine beings so called, but otherwhiles understand by 
those names certain powers of which the gods are donors or 
authors, they having first led us into the use of them by their 
own practice. 

With this distinction clearly in his mind, he quotes 
in the second of these two senses passages originally 
written in the first. Thus, in his treatise entitled 
" How to Know a Flatterer from a Friend," he says : 






QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 79 

A friend is not a dull and tasteless thing, nor does the de- 
corum of friendship consist in sourness and austerity of temper, 
but in its very port and gravity is soft and amiable — 

Where the Graces and Love have their houses. 

This is from the " Theogony," line 64. Plutarch means 
by "the Graces and Love " " certain powers of which 
the gods are donors or authors," and which show them- 
selves in our manners. But Hesiod means " properly 
the names of divine beings," for he is describing 
Olympus and its deities, and his " houses " are real 
dwellings. 

20. In the " Iliad," XXIV., 44, after Achilles has 
dragged the body of Hector around the tomb of Menoe- 
tiades, Apollo addresses the gods, condemning Achilles 
for his wanton act, which showed that he had neither 
" mercy " nor "shame." The word which we render 
"shame" means, as Mr. Gladstone 1 says, "compas- 
sion, or ruth," and " includes the idea of shame and 
self-respect." Plutarch, however, in his treatise on. 
" Bashfulness," line 50, quotes as if the word meant 
modesty. The quotation is rendered thus by Goodwin : 

Much harm oft-times from modesty befalls, 
Much good oft-times. 

21. In Plutarch's treatise on "The Face Appearing 
in the Orb of the Moon," sections 28 and 29, Sylla 
argues that man is composed of three parts, body, soul, 
and understanding ; the body given to him by the 
earth, the soul by the moon, and the understanding by 
the sun. These parts are separated after a time : at 

1 " Homer," Vol. II., p. 434. Liddell and Scott refer to Gladstone's 
definition with approval. 



l8o QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

death, the soul and the understanding together forsake 
the body ; and at a still later period the soul and the 
understanding part, the soul returning to the moon and 
the understanding to the sun. Thus man dies twice. 
After stating his doctrine, and elaborating it with 
much imaginative beauty, Sylla quotes a line from the 
"Odyssey," XL, 221 : 

The soul, like a dream, flies quickly away. 

The word " soul " he interprets as referring, not to the 
immortal part of man, but to the connecting link be- 
tween the mortal and the immortal, which, when it re- 
turns to the moon, " retains only some prints and 
dreams of life." All the persons present at this dia- 
logue knew that Homer uses the word here rendered 
"soul" to designate the immortal part of man. The 
line is from the address of the mother of Ulysses in 
hades to her son. It refers to the moment of death ; 
it is then that 

The soul, like a dream, flies quickly away. 

But Sylla, having quoted the line in his own new sense, 
proceeds to comment upon it as follows : 

Which it does not immediately, as soon as it is separated from 
the body, but afterwards, when it is alone and divided from the 
understanding. 

22. Lucian of Samosata, born near the end of 
Hadrian's reign, speaking of the conversation of a great 
philosopher, and comparing it to an arrow, borrows 
from the « Iliad," VIII., 282 : l 

Thus ever shoot, and become the light of the people. 

1 Lucian' s " Nigrinus," section 80. 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND l8l 

Homer uses the word "light" in the sense of glory ; 
" become the glory of the people." Lucian, in his ac- 
commodation, uses it as if it meant a means of en- 
lightenment. 

23. In Plato's "Republic," Book VIII., section 550, 
Socrates, after speaking of several different kinds of 
States or governments, the democracy and the tyranny, 
is about to speak of the oligarchy. He introduces it 
by a pleasant reference to a great poet : 

Let us look at "another man," who, as ^Eschylus says, "is 
set over against another State; " or rather, as our plan requires, 
begin with the State. 

The reference is to the "Seven against Thebes." This 
city had seven gates, and seven great warriors, each 
leading; an army, assaulted it, so that there was one 
chief to each gate. The messenger to the king names 
the gates in order, and tells him what chief leads the 
assault against each one. After the mention of the 
second chief the king says : " Describe another, set at 
another gate." As each chief is mentioned, he "sets 
over against him" one of his own great champions. 
The quotation is only of a general kind, for the exact 
words quoted are not in the tragedy. It is also given 
quite a new sense ; in /Eschylus the " setting over 
against " is a military phrase ; but in the quotation it is 
used merely as a graceful means of transition from one 
kind of State to another, and one kind of citizen to 
another. 

24. In the "Symposium" of Plato, section 195, 
Agathon praises Love as being young and tender. 
Hence, he says : 

Q 



182 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

He ought to have a poet like Homer to describe his tender- 
ness, as Homer says of Ate, that she is a goddess and tender: 

Her feet are tender, for she sets her steps 
Not on the ground, but on the heads of men ; 

all of which is an excellent proof of her tenderness, because she 
walks not upon the hard, but upon the soft. 

This is exquisite humor, but it is also an interpretation 
of the lines which their author never dreamed of. Ate 
was the goddess of vengeance, and of vengeance in the 
form of infatuation. She is by no means tender, but 
on the contrary remorseless. When Homer says she 
has soft feet, it is but a poetic way of saying that she 
treads softly and imperceptibly over the heads of men, 
deluding and blinding them, without making them 
aware of her presence ; and in this her hardness is 
shown, rather than her tenderness. The word for 
tender in Homeric and other early Greek never refers 
to gentleness of disposition, but only to physical soft- 
ness. It naturally took on the other meaning in the 
lapse of time. The playful turn which Plato gives the 
quotation wholly diverts the word from its Homeric 
uses, as all his readers would perceive at a glance. 

25. Julian, in his symposium on "The Caesars," rep- 
resents Tiberius as coming to the table. His face was 
recognized. Then, 

as he turned to sit down, his back displayed several scars, 
some cauteries and sores, severe stripes and bruises, scabs and 
tumors imprinted by lust and intemperance. Silenus then said: 

'AXlo'tdq /int, gsivs, (pdv-qi; v£ov 77 to izapoidzv. 

Far different to me, O guest, thou seemest than before. 

This is a line from the "Odyssey," XVI., 181. The 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 83 

last word, x&pocOev^ like its English equivalent ''before/' 
has two principal meanings ; it may mean before in 
time, formerly ; or it may mean the front, as contrasted 
with the back. In the passage from which the quota- 
tion is taken it is used in the former of these senses : 
Pallas had transformed Ulysses by a touch of her wand, 
so that Telemachus scarcely recognized him, and ex- 
claimed : " Thou seemest other than thou wast before." 
Julian uses the word satirically of the contrast between 
the face of Tiberius and the back, and this use of the 
Homeric line m a new sense is a part of the sting 
which the speech inflicts. 

26. The only instance of this kind in the New Tes- 
tament that has created any serious objection is at 
Rom. 10 : 6-8. The quotation is from Deut. 30 : 1 1- 
14, where it refers to the commandment which God 
had given the people, of which they could not say that 
they were ignorant : 

" This commandment which I command thee this day, 
it is not too hard for thee, neither is it far off. It is 
not in heaven, that thou shouldest say, Who shall go 
up for us to heaven, and bring it unto us, and make us 
to hear it, that we may do it ? Neither is it beyond 
the sea, that thou shouldest say, Who shall go over the 
sea for us, and bring it unto us, and make us to hear it, 
that we may do it ? But the word is very nigh unto 
thee, in thy mouth, and in thy heart, that thou mavest 
do it." 

The language is reproduced freely by the Apostle 
Paul, with reference to Christ in his relation to "the 
righteousness which is of faith " : 

" The righteousness which is of faith saith thus, Say 



184 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

not in thy heart, Who shall ascend into heaven ? (that 
is, to bring Christ down) ; or, Who shall descend into 
the abyss ? (that is, to bring Christ up from the dead). 
But what saith it ? The word is nigh thee, in thy 
mouth and in thy heart : that is, the word of faith, 
which we preach." 

Here is both a change of language and of meaning : 
the word " abyss " is used, instead of the " sea " of the 
Septuagint original, because it has two meanings. It 
may mean " sea," as in the Septuagint, or it may mean 
hades, the world of spirits (Luke 8:31: Rev. 9:1, 
2, 1 1 ; 1 1 : 7 ; 17 : 8 ; 20 : 1, 3). The apostle uses it 
in the latter sense, which the " sea " of the original 
passage would not admit. 

Thus the passage belongs in principle to both the 
second and third classes now under examination, for it 
presents us a change of reference effected by means 
of a change of language, and also by means of a new 
pivotal sense attached to the new word. It is precisely 
in the line of the numerous examples which I have ad- 
duced from secular literature, and, had it been found in 
Cowper, in Gladstone, in Plato, in Julian, it would have 
occasioned no unfavorable comment. It is, in one 
sense of the words, "quotation by sound," as Kuenen 
calls it ; but it is " quotation by sound " exactly as the 
preceding instances are "quotation by sound." The 
apostle does not quote for proof. He does not say 
that he quotes at all, knowing that his readers will 
recognize the source of the words for themselves, as 
the passage was familiar, and even famous. He quotes 
for rhetorical embellishment and illustration, as Cowper 
does in his quotation from the " Paradise Lost " ; and, 



QUOTATIONS BY SOUND 1 85 

like Cowper, he sets the words in their new connection 
by means of explanatory remarks. In the presence of 
the examples of the same kind now adduced, the efforts 
of adverse critics to impeach the honesty of the writer, 
and of the more believing critics to show that the pas- 
sage refers to the same thing in Deuteronomy and in 
Romans, ought alike to cease. 



IX 

DOUBLE REFERENCE 

I. The Case Stated. 

THE writers of the New Testament often treat as re- 
lating to the Messiah and his kingdom passages 
written with reference to persons who lived and events 
which happened centuries before the Christian era. 
There are direct Messianic predictions m the Old Tes- 
tament, like Isa. 53, to which the New Testament 
writers appeal in not less than thirteen places, or like 
Isa. 8 : 23 ; 9 : 1, 2 ; Zech. 9 : 9-17. The predictions 
of this kind, however, are relatively few in number, and 
usually the passages quoted in the New Testament as 
pointing forward to Christ were occasioned by some 
person or event contemporary with the prophet. 

// The Debate. 

The fact just stated has given rise to a protracted 
debate. On the one side it is claimed that there is a 
twofold reference in these passages, the primary to the 
contemporary person or event, the secondary to Christ 
and his kingdom. On the other side it is maintained 
that there is but one reference, and that the theory of 
double reference is a makeshift, an expedient of despair, 
a confession of defeat. Davidson 1 expresses what 
may be called the modern rationalistic view of proph- 

1 " Introduction to the New Testament," Vol. I., p. 98. 
186 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 187 

ecy when he says : " It is an axiom of interpretation 
that no passage has more than one sense." He makes 
haste, however, to modify the statement by writing on 
the same page : " In making these remarks, we do not 
deny that deeper meanings may be hid under the Old 
Testament history." The great majority of his school 
of interpretation are less timid, and make the denial 
without qualification. The conclusion drawn from the 
denial is natural : if there is no secondary reference in 
the Old Testament, then, for the skeptic, the use made 
of the Old Testament by the writers of the New is the 
result either of dishonesty or ignorance. It is usually 
pronounced the result of ignorance by these critics, 
with an occasional insinuation of the other motive. 
Tholuck says : l 

The industry of the elder critics had collected a great number 
of examples of arbitrary hermeneutics in the rabbinic writings. 
Le Clerc and Wetstein had already given hints to deduce conse- 
quences from these premises. In our own times this step has 
been taken. Supplied with the materials collected by the elder 
critics, Dopke, in his "New Testament Hermeneutics," at- 
tempts to prove that never, in any generation, was a more ab- 
surd mode of interpretation adopted than that of the rabbis, and 
that the apostles, in this respect, made no exception to the errors 
of their nation. Already this opinion has been brought forward 
as an indubitable deduction by such interpreters as Bohme, Riick- 
ert, and Meyer. Only one consequence remains to be drawn, 
namely, that the appeals of the Redeemer to passages in the 
Old Testament are to be put in the same class. 

But this consequence has since been drawn, as wit- 
ness the following words from Toy's " Quotations " : " If 
he did not know the day of the consummation (Matt. 

1 " The Old Testament in the New." 



1 88 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

24 : 36), why should he be supposed to know the sci- 
ence of the criticism of the Old Testament, which be- 
gan to exist centuries after his death ? " 

But the relationships of the two Testaments as 
wholes, and the typical nature of many observances 
prescribed in the Old Testament and of events recorded 
and characters celebrated in it, are so evident that sev- 
eral of the deeper thinkers of the less orthodox schools 
of criticism have not failed to recognize them. Thus 
Bilroth says in his Commentary on 1 Cor. 1:19: 

According to his custom, the apostle supports his assertions by 
passages from the Old Testament, which, indeed, do not always 
suit, in a strictly historical sense, as if the writers meant what 
Paul means in the connection in which he introduces them, but 
which, according to the words, have a resemblance. In order 
not to involve Paul as well as the other writers of the New Tes- 
tament, and even Christ himself, in a charge of ignorance, or 
indeed, of disingenuousness, we must maintain the view, ac- 
cording to which the Old Testament, taken altogether, is a type 
of the New; so that, for example, the predictions of the prophets 
are not to be so applied to the Messiah as if the writers had con- 
sciously referred to the historical Christ, who was born under the 
reign of the Emperor Augustus, but so that in the words they utter 
the same Spirit of God expresses himself which penetrates the 
Avhole history organically, and which has also appeared in 
Christianity. This organic conception and exposition of his- 
torical phenomena, which, in a historical and philological re- 
spect, is entirely free from the fault of attributing to men of an- 
cient times a conscious knowledge that could not exist until a 
later period, is capable of universal application, even in the sci- 
entific representation of mythology. Applied to the relation be- 
tween the Old and New Testament, it at once puts an end to all 
the misunderstandings on this subject which have prevailed, 
and have given occasion to many complaints, and too often to 
spiteful witticisms. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 1S9 

This interpretation itself needs interpreting, in order 
that we may understand its whole meaning ; but it is 
plain that the writer has been convinced of the deep 
underlying relationship of the two Dispensations and 
the two Books. Something like this view is that of 
Bleek, Umbreit, and De Wette, the last, however, going 
farther, and speaking with surer insight and deeper 
enthusiasm : * 

Long before Christ, the world in which he was to appear was 
prepared: the whole Old Testament is a great prophecy, a great 
type of him who was to come, and who did come. Who can 
deny that the holy seers of the Old Testament saw, in spirit, long 
beforehand, the coming of Christ, and had presages of the new 
doctrine in prophetic anticipations, varying in clearness ? The 
typological comparison of the Old Testament with the New 
was no unmeaning amusement. And it is scarcely a mere acci- 
dent that the evangelical history, in the more important points, 
runs parallel with the Mosaic. 

Yet almost all the more radical rationalistic critics 
to-day deny the element of double reference in Scripture, 
and seek to wield the denial as a weapon against the 
faith of Christendom that the Bible is a special divine 
revelation. Some conservative interpreters have also 
felt that they could not defend the theory of double 
reference, among whom Tholuck classes Geier, J. H. 
Michaelis, J. D. Michaelis, Ch. Fr. Schmid, and Cremer, 
who denied the primary historic sense of many passages 
of the Old Testament applied in the New to Christ, and 
taught that they were simply and solely intended for 
the Messiah, even when uttered in the first person by 
the Hebrew writer. The earliest of these interpreters 

1 Quoted by Tholuck in his " Old Testament in the New." 



190 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

was Chrysostom, who saw in the prophetic portions of 
the Old Testament a structure of fragments : " For 
this is the form of prophecy," he says, "to break off 
and interpolate a historical portion, and after this has 
been narrated to return to the former topic." The latest 
and ablest conservative opponent of the doctrine of 
double sense in Scripture is Stuart in the " Excursus " 
appended to his " Commentary on the Epistle to the 
Hebrews." He regards some passages, which seem to 
be quoted as proofs, like Heb. 1 : 6, as mere expres- 
sions of the thought of the New Testament writer in 
the words of the Old, "just as we now borrow Scripture 
language every day to convey our own ideas, without 
feeling it to be at all necessary to prove, in every case, 
that the same meaning was originally conveyed by the 
words that we attach to them in our discourse." This 
is true, as I show in the third chapter of this book ; 
but it is true only of illustrative or decorative quota- 
tions, and not of those cited as evidences in formal ar- 
gument, like many of the quotations in the first chap- 
ter of Hebrews, where the author is engaged in demon- 
strating the dignity of Christ as the Son of God. 
Other quotations Stuart regards as directed to the spe- 
cial state of mind of those addressed, as for example 
in Heb. 1 : 11, 12, where he says that the writer quotes 
a passage with reference to the Messiah which perhaps 
has no original relation to him, but which the Jews be- 
lieved to have relation to him, so that they would con- 
cede to it a force it does not really possess. This dan- 
gerous ground is occupied also by Semler, Ernesti, 
Teller, and Griesbach, and that such a man as Stuart 
should venture upon it, however cautiously, shows the 



DOUBLE REFER! NCE 191 

sore straits to which the denial of double reference in 
Scripture must drive those believers who make it. 

Palfrey ! is almost the only conservative American 
theologian who has followed Stuart : he says : " The 
statement of two senses in a passage, indeed, is noth- 
ing short of a contradiction in terms." 

But, in spite of these denials, the great majority 
of Christian writers of every nationality have per- 
ceived that the Scriptures contain many passages 
which refer to more than one thing, and several dif- 
ferent theories have been brought forward to account 
for this feature of the sacred writings. Theodore of 
Mopsuestia was perhaps the first of this school ; he 
investigated carefully the historic circumstances out 
of which the Old Testament passages grew, yet justi- 
fied their quotation in the New, saying that God, as 
the original author of both Testaments, shaped the 
Old in relation to the New, so that the former contains 
emblems of the latter, like the exodus, the brazen ser- 
pent, the prophet Jonah, and the sacrifices. He found 
these emblems, however, only occasionally, not perceiv- 
ing the organic relation of the Testaments as a whole. 

It was to be anticipated that it would be long before 
the broad organic relationship of the two Testaments 
would be recognized and fully described, and the many 
typical passages of Scripture weighed in just balances ; 
and that, during the progress of the study, many 
glimpses of the truth would be had, accurate within 
narrow limits, but waiting for completion in broader 
views and more general statements. 

1 " Academical Lectures," Vol. II., p. 344. 



192 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Such is the saying of Grotius that " one and the 
same prophecy can be more than once fulfilled, so as to 
be appropriate to both this time and that, not only by 
the event, but also by divine guidance of the words." 
There are many prophetic passages, touching primarily 
some person or event of the time when they were writ- 
ten, but containing language far surpassing the imme- 
diate occasions, which, as Grotius did not perceive, 
were " shadows of the good things to come." 

Such also is the deep saying of Bacon, 1 that 

divine prophecies, being of the nature of their Author, with 
whom a thousand years are but as one day, are therefore not 
fulfilled punctually at once, but have springing and germinant 
accomplishments, though the height and fullness of them may 
refer to some one age. 

Here also belongs the ingenious but somewhat arti- 
ficial theory of Sherlock. l 

As two covenants were given to Abraham and his seed, one a 
temporal covenant, to take place, and to be performed in the 
land of Canaan; the other a covenant of better hopes, and to be 
performed in a better country; so are the prophecies given to 
Abraham and his children after him of two kinds; one relative 
to the temporal covenant, and given in discharge and execution 
of God's temporal promises; the other relative to the spiritual 
covenant, given to confirm and establish the hopes of futurity, 
and to prepare and make ready the people for the reception of 
the kingdom of God. Many of the ancient prophecies relate to 
both covenants; and hence it comes to pass that at the first appear- 
ance many of the ancient predictions seem to be hardly consist- 



1 " Advancement of Learning." Second Book, III., 2. 

2 "The Use and Intent of Prophecy. Six Discourses." By Thomas 
Sherlock, D. D. London, 1732. It is in the fifth of these discourses that 
the author works out his theory of the two covenants to account for the 
element of double sense in prophecy. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 193 

ent with themselves, but to be made up of ideas which can never 
unite in one person or one event. Thus, the promises to David 
of a son to succeed in his throne have some circumstances which 
are applicable only to Solomon and the temporal dominion over 
the house of Israel ; and some which are peculiar to the Son of 
David, who was heir of an everlasting kingdom, which was to be 
established in truth and righteousness. Hence it is that we 
often find the promises of temporal felicity and temporal deliv- 
erance raised so high that no temporal felicity or temporal de- 
liverance can answer the description, the thoughts and expres- 
sions of the prophet naturally moving from the blessings of one 
covenant to the blessings of the other, and sometimes describing 
the inconceivable glories of one covenant by expressions and 
similitudes borrowed from the more sensible glories and blessings 
of the other. 

Orelli has made a conservative statement of the doc- 
trine of types : x 

In modern days natural philosophers have established in de- 
tail the designed connection in the structure of the different pe- 
riods. Thus the most perfect being, man, presents himself 
first in imperfect preformation in the animals which, the higher 
their grade, so much the more plainly prefigure the structure of 
man. Just so there are types in history. Both phenomena, the 
typical and the perfect, must have received from the same spirit 
their distinctive character by which they resemble each other, so 
that an inner relation obtains between them. And as certainly 
as the form of the Israelitish nationality was meant by God's 
will to present a preliminary reign of God, so an inner relation 
must exist between this still imperfect kingdom of God and the 
perfect one. And this inner affinity will necessarily find expres- 
sion also in the outer life of this nationality, so far as that life is 
determined by God. Not merely the ritual and polity of Israel, 
so far as they are ordered by God, but its experiences also, as 
far as these befall it as God's people, will by inner necessity pre- 

1 " Old Testament Prophecy," p. 38. 
R 



194 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

sent beforehand what awaits God's perfected people, provided 
it is the same God who reveals his will, here preliminarily, there 
finally. 

Hofmann 1 would extend this statement to all 
history : 

Every triumphal procession that marched through the streets 
of Rome was a prophecy of Caesar Augustus ; for what the latter 
represented always, this the Victor represented on his festival 
day, God in man, Jupiter in the Roman citizen. In according 
this pageant to its victors, Rome proclaimed as its future that it 
would rule the world through its divinely worshiped imperator. 

Orelli quotes this passage with approval, but adds 
that the Victor in the triumphal procession should be 
regarded as a type, rather than as a prophecy, of Caesar 
Augustus. 

All the deeper and warmer among the recent exposi- 
tors of Holy Scripture, 2 even if in some instances they 
occupy a position of doubt, recognize the typical rela- 
tion of the Old Testament in general to the New. I 
may mention, as representing the large class to which 
I refer, Tholuck, De Wette, Lucke, Bleek, Umbreit, 
Olshausen, and Beck, none of whom will be suspected 
of special regard for an extreme dogmatism. Alford 
gives expression in these strong sentences to the view 
generally held : 

No word prompted by the Holy Ghost had reference to the 
utterer only. All Israel was a type : all spiritual Israel set forth 
' ' the second Man, " " the quickening Spirit " ; all the groanings 
of God's suffering people prefigured and found their fullest mean- 
ing in his groans who was the chief in suffering. The maxim 

1 " Weissagung und Erfiillung," I., 15. 

2 See Tholuck on the " Epistle to the Hebrews/' Dissertation I. 



double: reference 195 

cannot be too firmly held or too widely applied, that all the Old 
Testament utterances of the Spirit anticipate Christ, just as all 
his New Testament utterances set forth and expound Christ : 
that Christ is everywhere involved in the Old Testament, as he 
is everywhere evolved in the New Testament. 

This typical view of the Old Testament in its rela- 
tion to the New, and the typical view of history and 
character in general, may be accepted as true , and 
they will enable us to account for many of the double 
references of Holy Scripture. But they do not enable 
us to account for all. Perhaps it is true, as W. F. 
Adeney 1 says, that the " typical significance of the 
three days of Jonah's imprisonment cannot be supposed 
to contain any mysterious intentional relation to their 
antitypes. They can only be regarded as popular alle- 
gorical symbols." Not all minds can grasp the deep 
thought of the vital inner relations of history and 
character which create outer relations. Where there 
is one person sufficiently cultivated to do so, there are 
a hundred who are much more deeply impressed by 
some external coincidence. May it not be, therefore, 
that the Holy Spirit, having a very practical purpose 
at heart, the salvation of the greatest number possible, 
has provided means of arresting the attention of plain 
people, by placing in the Scriptures types and symbols 
of a popular and external kind, as well as such as appeal 
to the philosopher and the historian ? 

Beck 2 has made a valuable contribution to the dis- 
cussion in a treatise which Tholuck thus summarizes : 

1 "Hebrew Utopia," p. 67. 

2 " Versuch einer pneumatisch hermeneutischen Entwicklung des neunten 
Kapitels im Briefe an die Romer." 



ig6 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

If, indeed, the apostles knew how to extract from the Old 
Testament an anticipation of the New so entirely pertinent, and 
such anticipations, types, and points of connection could be 
found nowhere but in the Old Testament writings, one and the 
same divine Spirit must have superintended on both sides — there 
to ordain the points of connection, and here to impart the capa- 
bility of perceiving and laying hold of them. What is it which 
gives to analogies taken from the sphere of nature to illustrate 
spiritual relations, that power of conviction over the mind ? Is 
it the simple parallelism ? Or is it the inseparable conviction of 
the unity of the Spirit that rules in both departments ? 

The view of Dr. Arnold is striking : " Every proph- 
ecy has, according to the very definition of the word, 
a double sense ; it has, if I may venture so to speak, 
two authors, the one human, the other divine." This 
is quoted by W, F, Adeney. 2 who adds an explanation 
of it : " The prophet is not required to give more than 
one meaning to his words, but a secondary and higher 
signification is supposed to be infused into them by 
the influence of the divine inspiration." 

Something like this is the ground taken in a thought- 
ful article in the " Studien unci Kntiken," 1866, entitled 
" Ueber doppelten Schriftsinn." The author calls 
attention to "the unity of religious experience which 
runs throughout all the Scriptures," giving passages a 
predictive cast " which are not in themselves strictly 
predictive," and thus forming a ground of double 
sense. 

The organic relation of the two Testaments was at 
length worked out admirably by Tholuck in his " Old 
Testament in the New." The view has been already 

1 "Sermons en the Interpretation of Prophecy," p. 41. 

2 " Hebrew Utopia," p. 50. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE I 97 

presented in the language of others, but I take pleasure 
in referring the reader to a discussion of it so able, so 
profound, and so devout, 

Some of those who refuse to use the term " double 
sense," present to us in other words the thing meant 
by it. Thus Briggs l writes : 

There is no double sense to Hebrew prediction. The predic- 
tion has but one sense. But inasmuch as the prediction ad- 
vances from the temporal redemption of its circumstances to the 
eternal redemption of the Messiah, and it is part of a series of 
predictions in which the experience of redemption is advancing, 
it cannot be otherwise than that some of the elements of the pre- 
dicted redemption should be realized in historical experience ere 
the essential elements of the Messianic redemption is attained. 

Again * he says : 

The Hebrew prophets rise to the most intricate themes in their 
symbolism. They not only use the external history of the past, 
with its great persons, institutions, and events, but they freely 
employ the great persons, institutions, and events of their own 
times, and even enter into their own souls, in order to represent 
the innermost experiences of future persons and generations. 

A large part of this controversy might have been 
avoided had writers on both sides used the term 
"double reference" instead of the term "double 
sense." There arises in every mind an immediate 
objection to the statement that any language is used 
in a "double sense" ; and the statement seems at first 
to be "a contradiction in terms," as Palfrey pronounces 
it. A little reflection ought to remove this first im- 
pression, for one cannot read far in any literature with- 

1 "Messianic Prophecy," p. 65. 2 Ibid, p. 48. 



198 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

out coming upon words which are plainly used, at one 
and the same time, in a double sense, as I shall show 
in a moment. But, alas ! even scholarly criticism too 
often moves upon the surface, limits its view to nar- 
row fields of debate, and yields to first impressions 
and party catchwords. Moreover, the term " double 
sense " carries with it the shadows of moral condemna- 
tion ; it suggests the phrase of Tennyson, " to palter 
in a double sense " ; and hence every reverent mind is 
reluctant to use it with reference to the Holy Scrip- 
tures, and skeptical critics are quick to take advantage 
of this feeling, and may almost be said, even while 
objecting to the doctrine of a "double sense" in the 
Bible, to employ the term itself in a " double sense," 
one ostensibly innocent, but suggesting the other which 
is full of blame. I shall therefore use the term "double 
reference," in order, as far as possible, to avoid the 
preconceptions associated with the term " double 
sense." 

III. The Usage of Literatures. 

On both sides of the debate the contestants 
have assumed that it could take into view no wider 
ground than that of the Hebrew writings, biblical and 
rabbinic, and it has not occurred to any one to ask 
whether double reference is a characteristic of any 
other literature. I purpose, therefore, to carry the 
inquiry into this new field. I affirm not only that 
double reference is found in all the great literatures of 
the world, ancient and modern, but that instances of it 
abound in them. Indeed, a literature would hardly be 
worthy the name that did not often present to the 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 199 

reader sudden ascensions from the low to the lofty, 
from the actual to the ideal, from the obvious and 
commonplace to the region of all dreams, imaginations, 
and hopes. Moreover, the secular literatures give us 
many examples of all the different kinds of double 
reference which Christian scholars have ever claimed 
that they discover in the Old Testament as interpreted 
by the apostles and evangelists. I shall now make 
these assertions good by evidence far more than suffi- 
cient for the purpose. 

To render my meaning clear at once, I refer the 
reader to two exquisite American poems, both inspired 
by the building of a ship ; one by Whittier, the other 
by Longfellow. The poem by Whittier has but one 
reference, and all its language is appropriate to this. 
But the poem of Longfellow has in parts a triple refer- 
ence, one to a ship, another to a bride, and yet another 
to the commonwealth. In the earlier part of this 
well-known poem, only the first reference is found. 
After this the ship is represented as a bride passing to 
the arms of her husband, only that a real bride, the 
daughter of the builder, may be introduced. At the 
very close the State comes into view, and we perceive 
that the poet, from the beginning of his work, has 
looked upon his ship as a type of the State, and its 
beginning as a type of the process by which our 
country has been made what it is : 

Thou too, sail on, oh ship of State, 
Sail on, oh Union, strong and great. 

We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. 



200 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

The element of double reference is a marked feature 
of the poetry of Tennyson. Thus he himself tells us 
that the " Idyls of the King " are designed not merely 
to relate again the old legend of Arthur, but to sing 
the ''warfare of sense against the soul," a meaning 
which we can all find, now that the author has pointed 
us to it. 

Having begun with illustrations of double reference 
in the poetry of our language, I shall limit my further 
citations from English literature to this field, and to 
the works of Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton, asking 
the reader to search elsewhere for himself, and assur- 
ing him that he will discover abundant instances in 
every direction, in both prose and verse. 

All critics recognize the element of double reference 
in Spenser ; thus Craik l tells us that " The Shepherd's 
Calendar," though consisting of twelve distinct poems 
denominated "^Eclogues," is less a pastoral in the 
ordinary acceptation, than a piece of polemical or 
party divinity. Spenser's shepherds are, for the most 
part, pastors of the church, or clergymen, with only 
pious parishioners for sheep. One is a good shepherd, 
such as Algrind, that is, the puritanical archbishop of 
Canterbury, Grindall. Another, represented in a much 
less favorable light, is Morell, that is, his famous an- 
tagonist, Elmore, or Aylmer, bishop of London. His 
fourth ^Eclogue celebrates Queen Elizabeth under the 
character of Eliza, a shepherdess. His " Faerie Queene " 
he himself calls "a continued allegory, or dark con- 
ceit." The character of the Fairy Queen is intended 



1 " History of the English Literature and Language," Vol. I., p. 487 ff. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 201 

to represent glory; but she stands also for Queen 
Elizabeth, " the most excellent and glorious person." 
Indeed, a series of triple references runs through the 
whole poem, for, not only one of the virtues, but also 
" some eminent individual of the day appears in like 
manner to have been shadowed forth in each of the 
other figures." Craik advises us, if we "would enjoy 
the ' Faerie Queene' as a poem," to forget all but the 
primary references, and to read it as a story. 

The element of double reference is found in Shakes- 
peare. Take, for example, the famous passage of the 
" Midsummer Night's Dream," in which Oberon orders 
Puck to fetch the flower called "love-in-idleness" : 

That very time I saw (but thou could' st not), 

Flying between the cold moon and the earth, 

Cupid all armed; a certain aim he took 

At a fair vestal, throned by the west ; 

And loosed his love-shaft smartly from his bow, 

As it should pierce a hundred thousand hearts ; 

But I might see young Cupid's fiery shaft 

Quenched in the chaste beams of the wat'ry moon; 

And the imperial vot'ress passed on, 

In maiden meditation, fancy-free. 

Yet marked I where the bolt of Cupid fell ; 

It fell upon a little western flower — 

Before milk-white, now purple with Love's wound — 

And maidens call it love-in-idleness. 

Fetch me that flower. 

This passage is appropriate to the fairy world, and 
the ordinary reader finds in it no reference besides ; 
but its setting is in fact historical " It has always 
been agreed," says Gervinus, 1 " that by the ' vestal, 

1 " Commentaries on Shakespeare." Vol. I., p. 264. 



202 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

throned by the west,' from whom Cupid's shaft glided 
off, Queen Elizabeth was intended." So much is al- 
lowed by all students of Shakespeare ; but many of 
them go farther, and see in "Cupid all armed" the 
Earl of Leicester, the suitor of the royal virgin, whose 
festivities at Kenilworth were intended to promote his 
love-making. Among the spectacles exhibited to the 
Queen, a singing mermaid played a part, who swam 
upon the back of a dolphin, amid a firework of shoot- 
ing stars. The shaft of Leicester failed ; but it fell 
upon the Countess Lettice, of Essex, whose husband 
was absent in Ireland. The criminal relations of Lei- 
cester with her became well known. She was the 
little western flower, 

Before milk-white; now purple with Love's wound. 

Richard Grant White 1 calls the passage "the en- 
chanting compliment to Queen Elizabeth." 
Gervinus continues : 

Every new and old investigation has long ago proved how 
readily this realistic poet sought, in the smallest allusions as well 
as the greatest designs, lively relations to the times and places 
around him, how in his freest tragic creations he loved to refer 
to historical circumstances, aye, founded even the most foolish 
speeches and actions of his clowns, of his grave-diggers in 
"Hamlet," or his patrols in "Much Ado About Nothing," 
upon actual circumstances. 

Lowell 2 says that the leading characters of the 
"Tempest" are typical, "and not merely typical, but 
symbolical." "Consider for a moment if ever the 

1 "Studies in Shakespeare," p. 15. 

2 "Literary Essays," Vol. III., pp. 59,60. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 203 

Imagination has been so embodied as in Prospero, the 
Fancy as in Ariel, the brute understanding as in 
Caliban." 

The element of divers reference abounds in Milton. 
" Comus " has a triple reference. First, there is the plain, 
grammatical meaning of the fairy story itself, which 
the poem relates. Secondly, there is the history by 
which this exquisite masque was suggested, the actual 
loss of the two brothers and the sister in a forest. 
Thirdly, there is the impersonation of sensuality in the 
character of Comus and of virtue in that of the lady. 
These characters are types of the two opposite prin- 
ciples. The critics have but one voice concerning this 
typical character of the work, and no reader can over- 
look it. 

Keightly 1 finds in the Eve of the "Paradise Lost" 
references to the first wife of Milton, who deserted 
him, and afterward sought his pardon with tears. He 
quotes the following passage : 

Being as I am, why didst not thou, the head, 
Command me absolutely not to go, 
Going into such danger, as thou saidst ? 
Too facile then, thou didst not much gainsay ; 
Nay, didst permit, approve, and fair dismiss. 
Hadst thou been firm and fixed in thy dissent, 
Neither had I transgressed, nor thou with me. 

This is almost a history of the separation which 
brought to Milton so much agitation and sorrow. The 
reconciliation is also described in the same poem. 
"Still later," writes this celebrated critic, "when far 
advanced in life, and after having been in the enjoy- 

1 " Life, Opinions, and Writings of John Milton," p. 124. 



204 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

ment of the society of two most amiable and affec- 
tionate wives, the pain caused him by Mary Powel 
seemed to have recurred strongly to his mind. She is 
evidently the Delila of his Samson Agonistes." The 
illustrative passages are too long to quote here. 

Edwin Paxton Hood l finds in the evil angels of the 
" Paradise Lost " allusions to the politicians whom 
Milton knew : 

"Men, the very copy of these lost spirits, ranged round the 
banner of Charles and round the council-board ol Cromwell. 
How we identify Prince Rupert with Moloch, frowning, whose 
look denounced desperate revenge and battle dangerous ; rash, 
precipitate, reckless of his cause, mindful only of revenge. We 
always think of the stern and designing Strafford in the portrait 
of Beelzebub. " " Certainly the prime ministers of Satan and of 
Charles answer to each other." "Those were the times of 
extraordinary men ; and Milton sketched the portraits of extraor- 
dinary spirits." 

Garnett 2 finds an instance in the " Samson Ago- 
nistes " : 

Samson's impersonation of the author himself can escape no 
one. Old, blind, captive, helpless, mocked, decried, miserable 
in the failure of all his ideals, upheld only by faith and his own 
unconquerable spirit, Milton is the counterpart of his hero. Par- 
ticular reference to the circumstances of his life are not wanting ; 
his bitter self-condemnation for having chosen his first wife in 
the camp of the enemy, and his surprise that near the close of 
an austere life he should be afflicted by the malady appointed to 
chastise intemperance. But, as in the Hebrew prophets Israel 
sometimes denotes a person, sometimes a nation, Samson seems 
no less the representative of the English people in the age of 
Charles the Second. 

1 " John Milton," p. 188. 2 " Life of Milton," p. 184. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 205 

I turn to German literature, and limit my examina- 
tion of it to the poems of Schiller and Goethe. 

Schiller's "Robbers," says Diintzer, "struck a note 
of combat and defiance to existing oppression," and 
with this play, which had on its surface scarcely a 
political allusion, " he hoped to shake the world, as 
Rousseau had shaken it with 'Emile.' ' That no one 
might fail to find its deeper significance, he printed the 
second edition of it with "a vignette of a lion rampant, 
and the motto, ' in tyrannos,' to give proof of the re- 
publican tendencies of the work." 

Scherer l says of Wallenstein : " The realist is one- 
sided, and so is the idealist, and only both in conjunc- 
tion furnish a complete picture of humanity. This is 
Schiller's teaching in Wallenstein." It is needless to 
say, however, that while the tragedy teaches this, it does 
not express it in any line, from beginning to end, nor 
even distantly hint it in words. 

Schiller's ballad of "The Diver" has a plain mean- 
ing, as a moving story, for the great majority of the 
readers ; but it also represents, as Bulwer says, " the 
contest of man's will with physical nature." The 
ballad of " Rudolf of Hapsburg," in addition to its 
first significance as a narrative, is " designed to depict 
and exalt the virtue of humility." The ballad of 
"The Fight with the Dragon," Schiller himself writes, 
" depicts the old Christian chivalry, half knightly, half 
monastic." In "The Maiden from Afar" we have 
poetry impersonated. These twofold references are 
abundant in the more elaborate works of Schiller ; and 

1 " History of German Literature," Vol. II., p. 21 3. 



206 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

I have selected my examples from his simpler poems, 
chiefly narrative, because we do not so much expect to 
find the element of double reference in them. 

Goethe's historical drama, " Gotz von Berlichingen," 
takes the reader back two hundred years from the date 
of its appearance ; for it is cast in the sixteenth cen- 
tury, when its hero lived, a veritable robber; yet 
beneath the surface it portrays the Germany which 
Goethe himself knew. " In this play," says Scherer, 
" Goethe championed the cause of freedom against the 
tyrants of Germany, and contrasted the honest, patri- 
otic, chivalrous life of its hero with the corrupt life of 
the courts." Hence it was stigmatized as " revolu- 
tionary " by Gervinus and others. 

No one can understand the poem of " Faust " with- 
out some study of the double, and often manifold 
meanings which are found in many of its passages. 
Thus Bayard Taylor l says of the " Carnival Mas- 
querade " : " Goethe himself has added not a little to 
the confusion [of the interpreters] by introducing 
now and then a double, possibly even a triple sym- 
bolism ; therefore, although we may feel tolerably 
secure in regard to the elements which he represents, 
so many additional meanings are suggested that we 
walk the labyrinth with a continual suspicion of our 
path." 

Of the " Second Part " as a whole he writes : " There 
are circles within circles, forms which beckon and then 
disappear ; and when we seem to have reached the 
bottom of the author's meaning, we suspect that there 

I < ; Faust," Vol. II., p. 442. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 207 

is still something beyond." He pronounces "the epi- 
sode of Plutus and the Boy Charioteer a double alle- 
gory." The classical Walpurgis-Night, he tells us, 
"has a double intention," that <iof conducting Faust 
to a higher plane of life through the awakening and 
developing of the sense of beauty," and that "of 
bringing together the classic and romantic elements in 
literature and art in order to reconcile them in a region 
lofty enough to abolish all fashions of race and time." 

Carlyle says of the " Helena," in the " Second Part 
of Faust," that the "outward meaning seems unsatis- 
factory enough, were it not that ever and anon we are 
reminded of a cunning manifold meaning which lies 
hidden under it ; and incited by capricious beckonings 
to evolve this more and more completely from its 
quaint concealment." 

The following, from Scherer, 1 may serve further to 
illustrate the criticisms by Taylor and Carlyle just 
quoted : 

" In the ' Second Part of Faust ' typical realism predominates 
exclusively, only that the realism disappears more and more, and 
the typical element alone remains along with a wealth of alle- 
gory and personification. The emperor's court contains noth- 
ing but typical characters." "There is, however, a good deal 
of spurious symbolism in the ' Second Part ' which Goethe should 
not have allowed himself ; I refer to utterances which would be 
appropriate if they came from Goethe's own lips, but which are 
little consonant with the characters in whose mouths he puts 
them, and in which he either remains obscure, or offends if his 
meaning is understood. The latter is the case with the char- 
acter of Euphorion, who is not only Faust's and Helena's son, 
but is also meant as an impersonation of Lord Byron." 

1 " Hist. German Literature," p. 329. 



208 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Goethe himself has told us that "in Euphorion 
poesy is personified." Hence, many passages of Faust 
relating to Euphorion might be quoted to exhibit 
Goethe's conception of Lord Byron ; and the same 
passages might be quoted with equal propriety to ex- 
hibit his conception of poetry. 

The element of divers reference abounds also in 
French literature. I mention, for example, the " Pan- 
tagruel " and " Gargantua " of Rabelais, which are 
"full of satirical allegories and half -allegories," and 
require the most varied interpretations. I mention 
the "Apology of Herodotus" of Henri Estienne who, 
"in the guise of a serious defense of Herodotus from 
the charges of untrustworthiness and invention fre- 
quently brought against him, indulges in an elaborate 
indictment of his own and recent times, especially 
against the Roman Catholic clergy." I mention the 
"Fables" of La Fontaine, which, "as mere narratives, 
are charming," and in which there is "an undercurrent 
of sly, good-humored, satirical meaning." I mention 
Moliere, whose " Malade Imaginaire " has for its "main 
theme the absurdity of the current practice of medi- 
cine," and in which, "as usual, the genius of the writer 
veils the fact of the drama being a drama with a pur- 
pose." I mention the " Telemaque " of Fenelon, for 
which the author was banished from court because, 
under the disguise of an ancient story, the king and 
his ministers recognized a satire against the principles 
of their government. I mention the dramas of Vol- 
taire, the greatest of which are concerned with the 
characters of ancient history, yet which " owed their 
popularity chiefly to the adroit manner in which, with- 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 209 

out going too far, the author made them opportunities 
for insinuating the popular opinions of the time," so 
that many parts of them could be quoted as the views 
of the author concerning the circumstances of GEdi- 
pus, of Caesar, and of Mohammed, and also concerning 
the circumstances immediately about him. 

That there are manifold references in the myths of 
Greece beyond the plain grammatical meaning found 
upon the surface, is perceived at once by all who read 
them with any attention. Perhaps the best popular 
guide through the mazy windings of their teaching is 
Ruskin, in his " Queen of the Air," ] where he pre- 
sents to us the conclusions of all their chief modern 
students, suffused with the light of his own bright 
genius. He reduces the manifold references of this 
mythology to four distinct parts. First, there is the 
story itself. Then there is " the root, in physical ex- 
istence, sun, or sky, or cloud, or sea ; then the personal 
incarnation of that, becoming a trusted and companion- 
able deity, with whom you may walk hand in hand as a 
child with its mother or sister ; and lastly, the moral 
significance of the image, which is in all the great 
myths eternally and beneficently true." To the ordi- 
nary hearer the myth was history without a hidden sci- 
ence or a veiled morality. The " story of Hercules 
and the Hydra was, to the general Greek mind, in its 
best days, a tale about a real hero and a real monster. 
Not one in a thousand knew anything of the way in 
which the story had arisen." " Few persons have 
traced any moral or symbolical meaning in the story." 

1 Pp. 3-7. 



2IO QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

" But for all that, there was a certain undercurrent of 
consciousness in all minds that the figures meant more 
than they at first showed ; and, according to each one's 
faculties of sentiment, he judged and read them." 
The Greek poets perceived many of these deeper 
thoughts of their mythology, and presented them in 
their works, though in a veiled form. "Thus Pindar 
says of himself, < There is many an arrow in my quiver 
full of speech to the wise, but, for the many, they need 
interpreters.' " 

Karl Ottfried Miiller, 1 the most distinguished of the 
students of Greek mythology, writes as follows : 

The Grecian worship of nature places one deity at the head 
of the entire system, the god of heaven and light, which the 
name Zeus signifies. With this god of the heavens, who dwells 
in the pure expanse of ether, is associated the goddess of the 
earth, called variously Hera, Demeter, Dione. The marriage 
of Zeus with this goddess, which signified the union of heaven 
and earth in the fertilizing rains, was a sacred solemnity in the 
worship of these deities. The element of water was represented 
by Poseidon, and of fire by Hephaestus. 

Since the Greek mythology is thus veined with mul- 
tiple references, we should expect to find some con- 
sciousness of this feature in Hesiod, whose "The- 
ogony " was held in reverence as a revelation. He 
shows in this poem that he is aware of the double 
reference of the myths he relates, as in lines 224 and 
the following, where we are told that 

Night gave birth to Deceit and Desire, 
and that 

Discord brought forth Battle and Slaughter. 

1 " History of Greek Literature." Translated by George Cornwall 
Lewis, p. 14. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 211 

In such places the story deals in impersonations of 
virtues and vices, and attempts to set forth a philoso- 
phy, as well as a narrative of what the great mass of 
its readers regarded as real events. 

We should expect to find the same consciousness in 
Homer, who deals so largely with the gods and their 
interference in the affairs of men. Nor are we disap- 
pointed. " Few passages in the 'Iliad,'" says Keight- 
ley, 1 " are more celebrated than the following picture 
of the love-union of Zeus and Hera on the summit of 
Ida: 2 

He said; and in his arms Kronion seized 

His spouse. Beneath them bounteous earth sent up 

Fresh-growing grass; there dewy lotus rose, 

Crocus and hyacinth, both thick and soft, 

Which raised them from the ground. On this they lay, 

And o'er them spread a golden cloud and fair, 

And glittering drops of dew fell all around. 

This is, we think, justly regarded as a sportive 
adaptation by the epic poet of an ancient physical 
myth of the union of Zeus and Hera — heaven and 
earth, as we shall presently show — in springtime pro- 
ducing vegetation." " The physical union of earth and 
heaven is, we think, plainly discernible in the beauti- 
ful passage of Homer above noticed, It is given with- 
out any disguise by Euripides, in whose time the dei- 
ties of the popular creed were generally regarded as 
personifications of physical objects and powers ; and 
he has been imitated by the Latin Epicurean poets, 
Lucretius and Virgil." 
Similarly Blackie says : 3 

1 " Mythology," pp. 98, 103. 2 " Iliad," XIV., 364. 
3 " Homer and the Iliad," Vol. I., p. 329. 



212 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

It is true, and modern mythological science has proved it in 
the most satisfactory way, that Apollo means the sun, and that 
all the heathen mythology was originally a personification of the 
features and elements of the physical world ; it is true also that 
there is a manifest moral significance in some of the Homeric 
deities ; Pallas, for instance, as contrasted with Mars, repre- 
senting vigorous and wise energy, as opposed to the mere wild 
tiger-like fury of passionate attack. She, therefore, with mani- 
fest propriety, directs all the actions of the wise Ulysses, and 
checks the hand of the fierce Pelidan when he is being tempted 
to perpetrate a deed of rashness, for which no feats of valor, 
however brilliant, could have atoned. 

If we turn from Homer to the later poets of Greece, 
we observe the same things. Thus Curtius 1 writes : 

The Hellenes were accustomed to regard their poets as their 
teachers, nor could any poet find favor who deemed his only 
qualification to consist in talent, fancy, and artistic skill. Be- 
sides these qualifications there were required a thorough inner 
culture of heart and intellect, a deep and comprehensive knowl- 
edge of tradition, and a clear insight into things human and 
divine. 

vEschylus, "looking both into the future and into 
the past, like a prophet interprets the course of his- 
tory." Because of this lofty prophetic office of the 
poets, we are sometimes to find in their writings a 
meaning which does not lie on the surface. Recogniz- 
ing this high calling of the Greek poet, the Apostle 
Paul calls him a prophet : " a prophet of their own 
hath said " ; this was strictly the Greek thought con- 
cerning the Greek poet. 

Of iEschylus, Curtius says : 

Mankind, as vEschylus depicted it in the Titan " Prome- 
i " History of Greece," Vol. II., p. 579- 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 213 

theus " — enduring in the midst of tribulation, proud in its self- 
consciousness, unwearied in inventive thought, but at the same 
time prone to rashness and to vain-glorious arrogance — is no 
other than the generation of ^Eschylus' own contemporaries, 
ever striving restlessly onward. 

Curtius continues thus : 

It was impossible to describe the battle of Platsea in the " Glau- 
cus ' ' without proclaiming the glory of Aristides. Nor was there 
in the tragedies on mythical subjects any lack of passages which 
permitted, and even demanded, a direct application to the pres- 
ent. Such allusions were not the result of impure and frosty 
secondary designs obscuring the pure effect of the poetry, but 
they were necessary to such a man as yEschylus. . . The public, 
on the other hand, which in the theatre no less than in the as- 
sembly, was conscious of its character as a civic body, rapidly 
and spontaneously understood all allusions which might be 
interpreted to refer to public affairs and personages; and when 
yEschylus' words were spoken of Amphiaraus, the eyes of all 
men turned to Aristides, whose wish was " not to seem, but to 
be just," and who "from the far depths of his loyal heart sent 
forth the fruits of counsel proved and true." 

We find the same view in the great work of Karl Ott- 
fried M tiller on " The Literature of Ancient Greece." * 

In the "Seven against Thebes," the description of the up- 
right Amphiaraus, who wished, not to seem, but to be the best — 
the wise general from whose mind, as from the deep furrows of 
a well-plowed field, noble counsels proceed — was universally 
applied by the Athenian people to Aristides, and was doubtless 
intended by yEschylus for him. Then the complaint of Eteo- 
cles, that this just and temperate man, associated with impetu- 
ous companions, must share their ruin, expresses the disappro- 
bation felt by yEschylus of the other leaders of the Greeks and 
Athenians; among the rest, of Themistocles, who at that time 
had probably gone into exile. 

1 Vol. I., p. 430. 



214 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Plumptre 1 writes thus of the strophe of the "Aga- 
memnon," beginning in his translation with the words, 

Yes, one may say, 'tis Zeus whose blow they feel : 

Dramatically, the words refer to the practical impiety of evil- 
doers like Paris, with perhaps a half-latent allusion to that of 
Clytemnestra. But it can hardly be doubted that for the Athe- 
nian audience it would have a more special significance as a 
protest against the growing skepticism, what in a later time 
would have been called the Epicureanism, of the age of Pericles. 
It is the assertion of the belief of ^Eschylus in the moral govern- 
ment of the world. 

This critic writes again of a particular part of the 
same strophe : 

The chorus sees in the overthrow of Troy an instance of 
righteous retribution. The audience were perhaps intended to 
think also of the punishment which had fallen on the Persians 
for the sacrilegious acts of their fathers. 

In the "Agamemnon" of ^Eschylus, the famous 
chorus beginning in Plumptre's translation : 

O Zeus, whate'er he be, 

has a double reference. Plumptre 2 says of it, " As a 
part of the drama the whole passage that follows is an 
assertion by the chorus that in this their trouble they 
will turn to no other god, invoke no other name. But 
it can hardly be doubted that they have a meaning 
beyond this, and are the utterance by the poet of his 
own theology." " Like the voice which came to Epi- 
menides, as he was building a sanctuary to the Muses, 
bidding him dedicate it not to them, but to Zeus, it 

i " The Tragedies of ^schylus," Vol. I., p. 25, notes I and 2. 
3 Ibid, p. 13, note 3. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 215 

represents a faint approximation to a truer, more mono- 
theistic creed than that of the popular mythology." 
The passage might be quoted truthfully in either sense. 
Karl Ottfried Miiller 1 says of the " Eumenides " of 
^Eschylus : 

Of all the ancient tragedies extant, there is none in which the 
mythic and the political, the development of an occurrence in 
the Homeric age and the reference to circumstances and events 
in contemporary public life, are so intimately blended. Not 
only is the mythological texture of the play pervaded by politi- 
cal allusions, as it were fine threads discernible only by the 
more scrutinizing eye, but the whole treatment of the myth 
withal so turns upon political institutions deemed of paramount 
importance in those times, that by yielding one's self up to the 
impressions of the poem, one may for a while fancy the populace 
assembled in the theatre to be an ecclesia convened for the pur- 
pose of deliberating on matters of State and law. The speech 
in which Minerva inaugurates the council of Areopagus is, at 
the same time, a popular harangue clearly pervaded by the 
design of teaching the people that they should leave the Areop- 
agus in possession of its ancient well-founded privileges, and 
warning them against innovations which must inevitably issue 
in unbridled democracy. 

Hence, there are many lines in this play which 
might have been quoted by its Greek hearers as re- 
ferring both to the age of myths and to their own 
times. 

Lest it be said that such opinions are the outgrowth 
of the mystic temperament of these German writers, 
rather than of the poems themselves, let us listen to 
Grote, 2 the sober and unimaginative Englishman. He 
is speaking of ^Eschylus and Sophocles when he says : 

1 " The Eumenides of ^Eschylus," p. 107. 

2 " History of Greece," Vol. I., p. 513. 



2l6 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

The effect of Athenian political discussion and democratical 
feeling is visible in both these dramatists; the idea of rights and 
legitimate privileges as opposed to usurping force, is applied by 
^Eschylus even to the society of the gods ; the Eumenides accuse 
Apollo of having, with the insolence of youthful ambition, ' ' rid- 
den down ' ' their old prerogatives. 

It is commonly understood that yEschylus disapproved of the 
march of democracy at Athens during his later years, and that 
the "Eumenides" is intended as an indirect manifestation in 
favor of the senate of Areopagus ; without inquiring at present 
whether such a special purpose can be distinctly made out, we may 
plainly see that the poet introduces, into the relations of the 
gods with each other, a feeling of political justice, arising out of 
the times in which he lived and the debates of which he was a 



Thus, while to us these tragedies are merely the 
legends of the gods related in the form of dramas, to 
their authors and their first hearers they were full of 
secondary references to the great political questions 
which agitated the minds of the citizens. 

No critic overlooks the element of double reference 
in Sophocles, though some make it more prominent 
than others. Schneidewin, 1 who reduces it to its least 
expression, recognizes it freely. Others find in whole 
plays, founded on the ancient myths, nothing but refer- 
ences to the events of the day. Schneidewin blames 
them for holding that " Philoktetes," in the tragedy 
named for him, " is the home-returning Alcibiades ; 
Ulysses, the disingenuous Peisander ; Nestor, the guide 
of Antiphon, the overthrown oligarch ; Antilochus, the 
murdered Phrynichus ; and Thersites, Kleophon, the 
demagogue." It may be doubted how far we are to 

i " Sophokles/' Erklart von F. W. Schneidewin. Berlin, 1855. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 217 

follow such interpreters. Indeed we need not follow 
them at all if the way seem too much perplexed ; it is 
sufficient to take Schneidewin himself, the most timid 
and conservative student of Sophocles, as our authority; 
for he will show us many passages which point clearly 
to the men and the events immediately affecting the 
dramatist and the people who listened to his plays, 
though also appropriate to the mythical characters who 
utter them. He does not deny the reference of the 
Philoctetes to Alcibiades ; but, granting this, pronounces 
it a work of art so complete that the commentator to- 
day need not direct his attention to any relations except 
those of the myth, and thus "disturb his pure enjoy- 
ment of the artistic creation by turning aside to other 
and unfruitful things." He finds, with other critics, 
a reference to the plague at Athens in the " CEdipus 
the King," and he allows several references to passing 
events in the "CEdipus at Colonos." 

The double reference found in ^Eschylus and Sopho- 
cles, is also found in Euripides : his " later pieces are 
particularly rich x in allusions to the events of the day, 
and the relative positions of the parties which were 
formed, in the Greek States, and calculated in many 
ways to flatter the patriotic vanity of the Athenians." 
Yet these pieces, like the earlier, were reproductions 
in dramatic form of the ancient legends, and the mani- 
fest allusions to the affairs of the day were made by 
the characters of the popular mythology speaking of 
their own situations and concerns. " He avails him- 
self of the old stories in order to produce situations in 



1 Ottfried Miiller, " Literature of Ancient Greece," Vol. I., p. 487. 

T 



2l8 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

which he may exhibit the men of his own time influ- 
enced by mental excitement and passionate emotion." 
He has a place in these dialogues of mythological 
characters " even for indirect poetical criticisms, which 
he turns against his predecessors, specially against 
./Eschylus. There are distinct passages in the « Electra ' 
and the ' Phoenician Women,' which every one at Athens 
must have understood as objecting, the former to the 
recognition scenes in the ' Choephorae,' the latter to the 
descriptions of the besieging warriors before the de- 
cision of the battle, as stiff and unnatural." He does 
not carry his habit of secondary reference, however, so 
far as some others : " He does not, like ^Eschylus, con- 
sider the mythical events in any real connection with 
the historical, and treat the legends as the foundation, 
type, and prophecy of the time being." 

"We have reason to suppose," says Mahly, 1 "that 
the moral which the poet expressed through the mouth 
of his dramatic characters did not always please the 
sound judgment of the public. But the people could 
not well distinguish whether it corresponded merely to 
the character speaking at the time, or was intended to 
convey the views of the author himself." Sandys, in 
his fine edition of the " Bacchanals," says of this 
tragedy : " On a superficial view it might appear that 
the object of the play is nothing more than the glorifi- 
cation of the god whose worship was intimately con- 
nected with the origin and development of the Greek 
drama; but a more careful examination shows that there 
are also indications of a less obvious kind, pointing to 

1 "Euripides' Werke," Vol. I., p. 18. 






DOUBLE REFERENCE 2IO, 

an ulterior purpose." M tiller, the greatest critic of 
Greek literature, states thus the secondary object: 1 
"This tragedy furnishes us with remarkable conclu- 
sions in regard to the religious opinions of Euripides 
at the close of his life. In this play he appears, as it 
were, converted into a positive believer, or, in other 
words, convinced that religion should not be exposed 
to the subtleties of reasoning ; that the understanding 
of man cannot subvert ancestral traditions which are 
as old as time, and that it is but a poor philosophy 
which attacks religion." Paley 2 tells us that the 
" Children of Hercules," though rehearsing in dramatic 
form only a time-worn legend, " has a political object, 
that of attacking Argos for entering into a treaty with 
Sparta and joining the war against Athens." The 
object of the "Suppliant Women" was "to upbraid 
the Argives with ingratitude for invading the Attic 
soil." All the plays of Euripides are cast in the same 
legendary ages of the past ; but all of them are in- 
tended to speak to the people contemporary with the 
author concerning their own civil and religious in- 
terests. 

In Pindar we have the most varied use of secondary 
reference, and it appears in almost all his odes. " He 
himself remarks," says Muller, " that intelligence 
and reflection are required to discover the hidden 
meaning of his mythical episodes." In certain cases 
"events of the heroic age are described which re- 
semble the events of the victor's life, or which contain 
lessons or admonitions for him to reflect upon. Thus 

1 " History of Greek Literature," p. 225. 

2 " Euripides, with an English Commentary." 



220 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

two mythical personages may be introduced, of whom 
one may typify him in his praiseworthy, the other in 
his blamable acts ; so that the one example may serve 
to deter, the other to encourage." Pindar himself 
does not usually draw these lessons for his readers. 
He sings the story ; the hearers know that it has some 
reference to contemporary characters and events ; and 
they are left to find the application. " Indeed, it may 
be observed generally of those Greek writers who 
aimed at the production of works of art, whether in 
prose or in poetry, that they often conceal their real 
purpose, and affect to leave in vague uncertainty that 
which had been composed studiously and on a precon- 
ceived plan." 

Divers reference abounds also in Latin literature. 
Thus Bahr 1 says of the " Bucolics " of Virgil : 

There are manifold references to political affairs and to events 
in his own life which, as also the praise of lofty and influential 
persons, are placed in the mouth of the shepherds who appear 
in the poems. These display a higher grade of culture, and 
appear, therefore, not as real shepherds, but as allegorical per- 
sonages, so that this shepherd-world has no true individual life, 
but only one of an artistic kind, which is of service to the alle- 
gory. The Eclogue here becomes, to a certain extent, a means 
of presenting, under rural colors, the ideas of a world wholly 
different, that of literature or politics, or the personal relations 
of the poet to powerful men whose favor he wished to gain. 

Thus Tityrus, in the first Eclogue, is the father of 
Virgil, and Daphnis, in the fifth, is Julius Caesar. 

Cruttwell 2 tells us that the " y-Eneid " is veined with 
second references. " Some have regarded it as the 



1 " Geschichte der Romischen Literatur," Vol. I., p. 639. 
3 "Roman Literature," p. 268. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 221 

sequel and counterpart of the ' Iliad,' in which Troy 
triumphs over her ancient foe and Greece acknowl- 
edges the divine Nemesis. That this conception was 
present to the poet is clear from many passages in 
which he reminds Greece that she is under Rome's 
dominion, and contrasts the heroes or achievements of 
the two nations." Again: "Many critics have lent 
their support to the view that the ' ^Eneid ' cele- 
brates the triumph of law and civilization over the 
savage instincts of man ; and that because Rome had 
proved the most complete civilizing power, therefore it 
is to her greatness that everything in the poem con- 
spires. This view," Cruttwell continues, " seems some- 
what too philosophical to have been by itself his ani- 
mating principle." He then adds : 

"We should supplement this view by another held by Macro- 
bius and many Latin critics, and of which Mr. Nettleship, in a 
recent admirable pamphlet, recognizes the justice, namely, that 
the '^Eneid' was written with a religious object, and must be 
regarded mainly as a religious poem. Its burning patriotism 
glows with a religious light. Its hero is 'religious,' not 'beau- 
tiful,' or 'brave ' At the sacrifice even of poetical effect his 
religious dependence on the gods is brought into prominence. 
The action of the whole poem hinges on the divine will." 
"The glory of JEneas is to have brought with him the Trojan 
gods and, through perils of every kind, to have scrupulously 
preserved their worship. " " The ' ^Eneid ' is literally filled with 
memorials of the old religion." "This, then, being the lofty 
origin, the immemorial antiquity of the national faith, the moral 
is easily drawn, that Rome must never cease to observe it. The 
rites to import which into the favored land cost heaven itself so 
fierce a struggle, which have raised that land to the head of all 
the earth, must not be neglected, now that their promise has 
been fulfilled." 



222 QUOTATIONS OF THE) NEW TESTAMENT 

Thus the best criticism of the "^Eneid," represented 
by Cruttwell, finds in it not only a second reference, 
but also a third and a fourth. Many critics, according 
to Cruttwell, add yet another, and see in ^Eneas " a 
type of the emperor, whose calm, calculating courage 
was equaled by his piety to the gods and his care for 
public morals." 

IV. How Double Reference is Indicated. 

i. By means of overflow cf language. 

Sometimes the writer indicates his secondary refer- 
ence by means of what may be called an overflow of 
language. He is writing of that which immediately 
concerns him, but he has in mind also another refer- 
ence, and, consciously or unconsciously, his words swell 
beyond the limits of the first, and fill the channel of 
the second. Thus, in the following passage from the 
" Idyls of the King," Tennyson pictures the ocean on 
which Arthur passed away from human sight, and in 
the last line shows that it is the ocean of time, the 
tide of history : 

Only the wan wave 
Brake in among dead faces, to and fro 
Swaying the helpless hands, and up and down 
Tumbling the hollow helmets of the fallen, 
And shivered brands that once had fought with Rome, 
And rolling far along the gloomy shores 
The voice of days of old and days to be. 

As another illustration of double reference by means 
of overflow of language, I adduce the second stanza 
of the little poem entitled " The Tide-River," by Kings- 
ley The subject is the river, but language is used 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 223 

which is inapplicable to any river, and which shows 
that a human life is also meant : 

Dank and foul, dank and foul, 

By the smoky town in its smoky cowl, 

Foul and dank, foul and dank, 

By wharf and sewer and slimy bank ; 

Darker and darker the farther I go ; 

Baser and baser the richer I grow ; 

Who dare sport with the sin-defiled ? 

Shrink from me, turn from me, mother and child. 

The river flows by "wharf and sewer and slimy 
bank," but only a human being can become "baser the 
richer he grows," and so "sin-defiled" that the mother 
and child must shrink away from him. 

I bring forward another illustration from the " Di- 
vine Comedy." Dante regards Beatrice as a real per- 
son whenever he mentions her. But he also regards 
her as an impersonation of heavenly wisdom. In 
certain passages he says what cannot be explained 
upon the supposition that he refers to her as a mere 
person, and what can be explained only by bearing in 
mind the secondary reference. Take the following from 
Longfellow's translation of the "Purgatorio," XXX., 
124-145, in which Beatrice in glory upbraids Dante: 

As soon as ever of my second age 
I was upon the threshold, and changed life, 
Himself from me he took and gave to others. 
When from the flesh to spirit I ascended, 
And beauty and virtue were in me increased, 
I was to him less dear and less delightful ; 
And into ways untrue he turned his steps, 
Pursuing the false images of good, 
That never any promises fulfill ; 



224 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Nor prayer for inspiration me availed, 

By means of which in dreams and otherwise 

I called him back ; so little did he heed them, 

So low he fell, that all appliances 

For his salvation were already short, 

Save showing him the people of perdition. 

For this I visited the gates of death, 

And unto him who so far up has led him, 

My intercessions were with weeping borne. 

God's lofty fiat would be violated, 

If Lethe should be passed, and if such viands 

Should tasted be, withouten any scot 

Of penitence, that gushes forth in tears. 

This is absurd, if Beatrice is only a person ; for it 
was not wrong for Dante to turn to others after her 
death, and the act needed no vision of hell or peni- 
tence. The lines possess a meaning only when we 
bear in mind the statement of Dante himself, in his 
" Convito," that Beatrice represents heavenly wisdom. 
To forsake that for " false images of good " is to sin, 
to deserve punishment, and to need redemption. 

The authors of the Old Testament, as we shall see 
a little later, have frequently employed an overflow of 
language to indicate the presence of double reference 
in their writings. 

2. By means of types. 

Not only is multiple reference a feature of all great 
literatures, the spontaneous expression of the imagina- 
tion working in literary channels, but in every great 
literature it often takes the form of types. These 
types are not apparent to every reader ; and they may 
be but faint suggestions of meanings which perplex 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 225 

and elude even the most careful student. The best 
discussion of them is that of Bulwer in the note at the 
close of the first edition of his " Zanoni." He says : 

All of us can detect the types in "Faust" and "Ham- 
let" and "Prometheus," but none of us can elucidate them, 
because the essence of type is mystery. There is a differ- 
ence between allegorical and typical writing. An allegory is a 
personation of distinct and definite things — virtues or qualities — 
and the key can be given easily ; but a writer who conveys typi- 
cal meanings may express them in myriads. He cannot disen- 
tangle all the lines which commingle into the light he seeks to 
cast upon truth ; and therefore the great masters of this en- 
chanted soil — fairyland of fairyland — poetry imbedded beneath 
poetry — wisely leave to each mind to guess at such truths as 
best please or instruct it. To have asked Goethe to explain 
" Faust " would have entailed as complex and puzzling an answer 
as to have asked Mephistopheles what is beneath the earth we 
tread on. The stores beneath may differ for every passenger; 
each step may require a new description; and what is treasure 
to the geologist may be rubbish to the miner. Six worlds may 
lie under a sod, but to the common eye they are but six layers 
of stone. 

After referring to Thorwaldsen's statue of Mercury 
as but a single figure, and yet as telling a whole 
legend to those acquainted with mythology, Bulwer 
continues : 

Apply the principle of this whole concentration of art to the 
moral writer; he too gives to your eye but a single figure ; yet 
each attitude, each expression, may refer to events and truths 
you must have the learning to remember, the acuteness to 
penetrate, or the imagination to conjecture. But to a classical 
judge of sculpture, would not the exquisite pleasure of discover- 
ing the all not told in Thorwaldsen's masterpiece be destroyed 
if the artist had engraved in detail his meaning at the base of 
the statue ? Is it not the same with the typical sense which the 



226 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

artist in words conveys ? The pleasure of defining art in each 
is the noble exercise of all by whom art is worthily regarded. 

We shall gain a great advantage in the study of the 
Old Testament if we shall bear in mind these laws of 
typical writing ; the distinction between the typical 
and the allegorical ; the partial working out of the type 
as distinguished from the complete and clear finish of 
the allegory ; the illusory character of the type, which 
gives us but a doubtful glimpse, a dim suggestion, of 
its form, and then recedes from our view, while an- 
other figure as shadowy takes its place, so that we 
seem to be wandering at twilight through an enchanted 
wood, where tree and shrub and tangled thicket are 
visible and palpable, and yet haunted with flitting 
shapes of another world. 

Bulwer, in the extract cited, mentions three great 
dramas as examples of writings pervaded with the 
typical element: "Faust," from German literature; 
"Hamlet," from English; and "Prometheus," from 
Greek. In the latter portion of his note to " Zanoni," 
he tells us that the typical element enters largely into the 
composition of many modern novels. " Zanoni " itself is 
an instance, and he ventures to lift the veil from por- 
tions of this weird production, and give us some hints 
of its subtle meanings. Mejnour is science; Zanoni 
is idealism ; Viola is human instinct ; Mervale is con- 
ventionalism ; Nicot is animal passion ; and Glyndon is 
unsustained aspiration. 

In his " Ernest Maltravers," as he himself informs 
us in the preface, he has attempted another work of 
the same kind, in which the hero represents genius, 
and the heroine nature ; and the intercourse of the 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 227 

two, the efforts of genius to free itself from the fetters 
of custom and ally itself with nature, resulting in a 
union at first illicit, wild, stormy, and brief, and after- 
ward lawful, gentle, sweet, and permanent. 

Perhaps the most successful example of the typical 
romance is " Rasselas." Its theme is the pursuit of 
earthly happiness. The happy valley is the period 
of youth when, shut in from the great world, we 
dream of it as a scene of triumph and enjoyment, and 
long to escape from the limitations of our early years 
and go forth to conquer all the delights which we have 
pictured to ourselves. The philosopher is the teacher, 
who seeks to restrain the hot impulses of the brother 
and sister, and assures them that the earth does not 
contain the bliss which they seek. The journey 
through Egypt is the journey through adult life, which 
brings little satisfaction, and results in our return in 
memory to the happy valley, the days of childhood, 
where we dwell in the fond recollections of our declin- 
ing years. 

In " Caxtoniana," Bulwer says that the " Marble 
Faun," of Hawthorne, is a magnificent instance of the 
typical in romance. He gives but a few hints of this 
interpretation, which I here enlarge. Hilda, with her 
white dress, her white doves, and her residence in a 
region above Rome, in an atmosphere free from the 
murk of the papal city, is the puritanism of New Eng- 
land. Donatello, with his resemblance to the Faun of 
Praxiteles, with his suggestion of animal ears, with his 
love of sensuous ease and enjoyment, is the religion of 
nature, the Old Greek and Roman heathenism, in the 
garb of modern civilization and touched with some 



228 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

sense of the loveliness of Christianity, yet maintain- 
ing its ancient characteristics. Miriam is Judaism, 
clinging with a certain fondness to New England puri- 
tanism, since she finds in this companionship freedom 
from the dreadful figure which issues from the cata- 
combs, and proves to be a monk, the representative of 
Romanism as a persecuting power. Miriam never 
grows older, because she represents that of which the 
burning bush was a type, the people of Israel, in the 
flames, yet unconsumed ; ancient, and yet ever young. 
Donatello and Miriam had known each other in the 
past, and together had committed a great crime, the 
crucifixion of Christ, in which pagan and Jew joined 
bloody hands. They unite once more in the murder of 
the monk, by which they set forth the low morality of 
the religions they portray to us, as well as prophesy 
the punishment of persecuting Christianity by the vio- 
lent uprising of the world against it. 

The first reference is often typical of the second, 
and hence, in all literatures, as in the Bible, the typical 
element is prominent. Scherer * says : 

The "First Part of Faust" was completed as far as possible 
in the style of Goethe's cultured realism, and in accordance with 
the typical method of his ripest art, as we find it in " Hermann 
and Dorothea." The "Prelude at the Theatre" contrasts in a 
typical manner the poet's vocation and the actor's. The songs 
of the three archangels which open the " Prologue in Heaven," 
are an attempt to picture to us the world under its eternal aspects. 
The suicide scene and the walk on Easter Sunday afford us 
typical pictures of human life as a whole. 

Scherer tells us also that the "Votive Tablets" of 

1 " History of German Literature." Translated by Mrs. Conybeare, 
under the supervision of Max Miiller, Vol. II., p. 328. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 229 

Schiller are remarkable for " their comprehensive treat- 
ment of the typical relations and typical contrasts of 
life." In his " Wallenstein's Camp" he " adopts 
Goethe's generalizing and typical method. All the 
possible types of military life are embodied in indi- 
viduals, who are cleverly contrasted with each other." 
Of types in French literature, Stainsbury 1 says : 

If there is one fault to be found with the creations of French 
literary art, it is that they run too much to types. . . It is the 
fault of French literature to give the type only, without differen- 
tiation. An ill-natured critic constantly feels inclined to alter 
the lists of Racine's dramatis persona, and instead of the proper 
names to substitute "a lover," "a mother," "a tyrant," and 
so on. So great an artist and so careful a worker as Racine 
could not, of course, escape giving some individuality to his 
creations. Hermione, Phedre, Achille, Berenice, Athalie, all 
are individual enough of their class. But the class is a class of 
types, rather than of individuals. After long debate this differ- 
ence has been admitted by most reasonable French critics. 

Of Moliere's characters the same critic says : " Al- 
ceste, the impatient but not cynical hero ; Celimene, 
the coquette ; Oronte, the fop ; Eliante, the reasonable 
woman ; Arsinoe, the mischief-maker, are all immortal 
types." 

I shall close my survey of the three great modern 
literatures by quoting a passage which links them to- 
gether in one view ; it is from " The Poetry of Tenny- 
son," by Henry J. Van Dyke : 

In the middle of the nineteenth century three great artists set 
themselves at work to embody their conceptions of human life 
and destiny in the forms of art. 

Victor Hugo was the first. He tells us, in one of his prefaces, 

1 " History of French Literature," p. 303. 
U 



230 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

that it was his design to describe "the threefold conflict of man : 
in religion, against the constraint of dogmas ; in society, against 
the constraint of laws ; in nature, against the constraint of 
things. ' ' The results of his labors were ' ' Notre Dame de Paris, ' ' 
" Les Miserables," and " Les Travailleurs de la Mer." 

Richard Wagner was the second. It was in 1857 that he 
turned from the Niebelungen legends to the Arthurian cycle, and 
made the story of ' ' Tristan und Isolde ' ' a musical vehicle for 
his theory, derived from Schopenhauer, that the essence of sin 
is the desire of personal existence. This opera was followed by 
"Parsifal," in which he taught that the essence of virtue is 
compassion for the sufferings of others. It was his intention to 
write a third opera called "Die Sieger," or "Die Busser," in 
which the essence of holiness should be shown as the resignation 
of the desire for life. Thus his great trilogy was meant to be 
the pessimistic philosophy set to music. 

The third artist was Alfred Tennyson. His purpose was to 
depict the warfare of humanity in a poem. Like Wagner, he 
turned to the past for his material, and was attracted by the 
mystical beauty of the Arthurian legends. In these antique 
myths he desired to embody his own theory of human life. 
Tristram and Percivale become living characters in his poetry as 
truly as in the music of Wagner. The latest great picture of 
man's conflict with sin and fate is " The Idyls of the King." 

Thus the great characters of Victor Hugo are typical 
representatives of humanity as a whole ; the great 
characters of Wagner are typical representatives of 
sin and virtue ; and the great characters of Tennyson 
are typical representatives of various fleshly passions 
and spiritual excellencies. 

In Greek literature, as in Hebrew and Christian, the 
writer often treats history as a type of other history. 
Thus Ottfried Miiller » says : 

We have shown in a former chapter that the notion of an an- 
1 " Literature of Ancient Greece," Vol. L, p. 425. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 231 

cient conflict between Asia and Europe, leading, by successive 
stages, to events constantly increasing in magnitude, was one of 
the prevailing ideas of that time. It is probable that ^Eschylus 
took this idea as the basis of the prophecies of Phineus, and 
that he represented the expedition of the Argonauts as a type of 
the greater conflicts between Asia and Europe which succeeded it. 

That the characters of Greek mythology were used 
typically by the Greek writers need scarcely be said. 
Thus in all Greek literature Orpheus is the type of the 
musician and of musical charm. 

These examples of the typical in the secular litera- 
tures must suffice, though the material at my command 
tempts me to extend them greatly. They present 
every kind of double reference by means of types 
which any one has ever found in the Scriptures, as will 
be manifest when we examine the quotations of the 
New Testament in which this feature is assumed. 

V. Double Reference in Scripture. 

After this survey of the great literatures of the 
world, the element of double reference in the Scrip- 
tures will create no difficulty in any mind. We shall 
look for it, and shall be disappointed if we do not find 
it in abundance. To deny that it exists in Hebrew 
literature would be to deny that this literature was at 
all produced according to the ordinary laws of the 
human mind, to set it off by itself as a product of 
eccentricity, and to make it barren of thought and 
imagination beyond example. 

I shall now examine a number of passages in which 
the element of double reference has been discerned by 
other writers. In some of these I shall not find it. 



232 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

In others it will appear so prominent that no one can 
mistake it. In yet others it may be less obvious, and 
hence may perplex the reader. 

I. In his great prophecy of the destruction of Jeru- 
salem and of the end of the world, our Lord quotes 
frequently from the Old Testament ; but only one of 
his quotations has occasioned question. It is that of 
Dan. 9 : 27, at Matt. 24 : 1 5 and Mark 13 : 14 : " When 
ye see the abomination of desolation . . . standing in 
the holy place." Luke, 21 : 20, omits the quotation, 
and states its meaning in plain terms : " When ye see 
Jerusalem compassed with armies." Is the passage in 
Daniel, then, a prediction of the Roman conquest of 
the holy city ? 

It may refer to the conquest by Antiochus ; and our 
Lord may have intended only to say : " When ye see 
Jerusalem beleaguered as it was in the days of the 
Syrian invasion, escape for your lives." Thus a physi- 
cian might write with propriety : " When the plague 
described by Defoe appears again in London, flee at 
once, not waiting to prepare, or to take your posses- 
sions with you." This is the view of Toy : " The 
reference in the Gospels is to the destruction of the 
temple by the Romans ; but it does not appear that the 
passage in Daniel is cited as a prophecy of this event." 

Or we may regard the passage as referring to both 
events, and thus as making the first a type of the 
second. 

It seems to me, however, to relate directly to the 
coming and death of Christ and the subsequent destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem by the Romans. Those who refer it 
to the period of Antiochus do so, not on any ground 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 233 

afforded by the passage itself, but because of a precon- 
ception concerning the date of the book of Daniel and 
concerning the limitations of prophecy in general. 
The whole passage, as rendered in the Revised version, 
is as follows ; let the reader judge its meaning for 
himself : 

Seventy weeks are decreed upon thy people and 
upon the holy city, to finish transgression and to make 
an end of sins, and to make reconciliation for iniquity, 
and to bring in everlasting righteousness, and to seal 
up vision and prophecy, and to anoint the most holy. 
Know therefore and discern, that from the going forth 
of the commandment to restore and to build Jerusalem 
unto the anointed one, the prince, shall be seven 
weeks : and threescore and two weeks, it shall be built 
again, with street and moat, even in troublous times. 
And after the threescore and two weeks shall the 
anointed one be cut off, and shall have nothing : and 
the people of the prince that shall come shall destroy 
the city and the sanctuary ; and his end shall be with a 
flood, and even unto the end shall be war; desolations 
are determined. And he shall make a firm covenant 
with many for one week : and for the half of the week 
he shall cause the sacrifice and the oblation to cease ; 
and upon the wing of abominations shall come one that 
maketh desolate ; and even unto the consummation, 
and that determined, shall wrath be poured out upon 
the desolator. 

II. The quotations from Isa. 40 : 3-5 in Matt. 3:3; 
Mark 1:3; Luke 3 : 4-6 and John 1:23, give rise 
to the following comment by Toy : 

The passage in Isaiah is a description of Israel's return to 
Canaan, from the exile in Babylon, across the desert ; the re- 
moval of all obstacles out of the way is represented under the 



234 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

form of the construction of a smooth road through the wilder- 
ness; and the march of the people is described as the march of 
Yahwe, God of Israel, who would lead his people home. The 
prophet refers to nothing but this event in the history of Israel. 
But in later times the tendency of Jewish exegesis was to find 
Messianic predictions everywhere in the Old Testament, and es- 
pecially in Isa. 40-46 ; and when the Gospels were written such 
acts of preparation as are here described would naturally be 
connected with Christ's forerunner, John the Baptist. The 
striking parallelism between the two periods is obvious; in the one 
case God manifests his glory by delivering Israel from exile 
and planting his church in Canaan; in the other by the an- 
nouncement of his universal truth in Jesus, and the establish- 
ment of his church in the world; and in both cases there is a 
preparation for the great act. Here, as elsewhere, Jesus repre- 
sents the consummation of God's dealings with Israel and with 
the world. His person embodies all Israel's religious history. 

The great majority of critics, however, see in the 
prophecy something more than the return from Baby- 
lon, and in its application to the Baptist something 
more than the expression of the resemblance of the 
two epochs of history, or the embodiment of all Jewish 
history in the person of the Messiah. Their views are 
well expressed by Cheyne : " I hold with Dr. Franz 
Delitzsch, that however limited the historical horizon 
of these chapters may be, the significance of their pre- 
sentiments is not bounded by the exile, but extends to 
the advent of the historical Christ, and even beyond." 
Again he says of the whole section : " Let us now ap- 
proach with sympathetic minds this Gospel before the 
gospel. Though written primarily for the exiles at 
Babylon, its scope is wide as that of any part of the 
New Testament, and New Testament qualifications are 
required alike in the interpreter and in his readers." 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 235 

He reminds us that the address in the chapter now 
before us is to the prophets, so that, when it is said, 
"Prepare ye in the wilderness the way of Jehovah," 
the reference must be to the preparation of the hearts 
of the people under the influence of prophetic teach- 
ing, precisely as the words are interpreted in the Xew 
Testament, where the greatest of the prophets is shown 
to us "making ready for the Lord a people." It may 
be true, though it is not proved, that the prophecy was 
suggested bv the circumstances of the prophet's own 
time ; yet, if so, these circumstances were typical of 
greater things ; his vision sweeps beyond them ; and 
his language becomes a prediction, first of the pro- 
phetic forerunner of the Son of God, and then of the 
coming of God himself in the person of his Son. 

But I do not see in this prophecy any reference 
whatever to the restoration of Israel from the Baby- 
lonish captivity. " The specific application of this 
chapter to the return from Babylon," says Alexander, 
"is without the least foundation in the text itself." 
Alford pronounces it " very doubtful." It is difficult 
to read the passage with the coming of the forerunner 
and of the Son of God in mind, and not find in it an 
independent and formal prediction of these events ; for 
they fulfill its language most literally. 

The Hebrew is best construed by reading it, " The 
voice of one that crieth, In the wilderness prepare ve 
the way of the Lord" ; yet it might without violence 
be read as in the Xew Testament quotations, 1 " The 

1 The Xew Testament form is held to be correct by the common English 
version, by the " Speaker's Commentary," and by the margin of the Re- 
vised version. 



236 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

voice of one that crieth in the wilderness, Prepare ye 
the way of the Lord." Possibly the construction of 
the New Testament writers was preferred by them in 
order to show the connection of the prophecy with the 
fact that John preached in the wilderness. In any case, 
the change, if we grant that they make one, is only 
formal, and does not affect the thought. The figure 
employed by Isaiah is that of a forerunner of a king 
who is about to come. The office of the forerunner 
was to summon the inhabitants along the proposed 
route to mend it and make it fit for the use of the 
monarch. The proclamation to prepare a way in the 
wilderness would be published in the wilderness, whose 
scattered tribes would be summoned to the work. 
Thus the thought found by the New Testament writers 
in the passage is implied in the form which the majority 
of critics give to it in the Old Testament. 

III. I turn now from these quotations, which are not 
easily classified, to others which present their double 
reference upon their very face, in whose presence the 
most skeptical mind must grant that the Scriptures 
contain an element of double reference. Thus even 
Kuenen admits that it exists in the second and tenth 
Psalms, though his admission is made with evident 
reluctance. "The relative justice of the Messianic 
understanding" of these psalms, he says, "is apparent." 
"We do not overlook the fact," he adds, "that the 
poet who composed the second Psalm, although pro- 
ceeding upon a reality, yet, just because he is a poet, 
rises far above the reality. The historical king whom 
he has in view assumes, as it were, larger proportions, 
and becomes, as depicted by him, an ideal. Connect- 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 237 

ing points therefore are not wanting for applying this 
poem to the Messiah." "Very much the same is true 
of Psalm no." " In this Psalm, least of any, are the 
poetical and ideal features wanting, and thus the Mes- 
sianic interpretation of it very readily suggests itself." 
But a reference to the real and the ideal by the same 
word, the same sentence, the same passage, is double 
reference. And, though Kuenen would not say so, the 
Messianic reference of prophecy often consists precisely 
in this ascension to the ideal from the real as a basis. 
This is well expressed by Riehm : " In prophetic fore- 
sight we have to distinguish between two different 
elements. The one is more ideal and general, the 
other of a more concrete, historical nature." The 
latter is concerned with the character or event of the 
time ; the former with the larger features of the Mes- 
sianic age. 

These admissions of Kuenen are strengthened, rather 
than weakened, by his effort to prejudice his readers 
against the Xew Testament writers for the manner in 
which they have used the second Psalm: " These 
words," he says, referring to the declaration of Jehovah, 
"Thou art my son; this day have I begotten thee," 
" are regarded in Heb. 1 : 5 ; 5 : 5 as an address of 
God to his Son in his pre-existent state ; in Acts 13:33 
they are brought into connection with the resurrection 
of Jesus, and therefore understood as the formula in 
which the Messianic dignity is conferred upon him." 
This diversity of view of the two New Testament 
writers, did it exist, would create no difficulty, for the 
passage might very well refer to the Son of God both 
in his pre-existent state and in his state of exaltation 



2^8 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 



at his resurrection, since the glory of the two states 
was essentially the same (John 17:5). But the sup- 
posed diversity of view does not exist. " In Acts 1 3 : 
33 the words are brought into connection with the res- 
urrection of Jesus," as Kuenen says, and they are 
brought into no other connection in the Epistle to the 
Hebrews. In Heb. 1 : 5 they are quoted as referring 
to the glory of Christ as the Son of God, but no point 
of time is indicated, unless it is that of the preceding 
verse, which refers to the glory to which his resurrec- 
tion introduced him. In Heb. 5 : 5-10, the words of 
the psalm are distinctly referred to this state of glory ; 
for both his Sonship and his priesthood are considered 
as having commenced after his sufferings. Thus, all 
the instances in which the psalm is quoted in the New 
Testament are in perfect accord. It should be added 
that both in the Acts and the Epistle to the Hebrews 
the Sonship of Christ is regarded as beginning at his 
resurrection only declaratively, since that event demon- 
strated to the world a dignity which had existed from 
eternity. 

IV. In Ps. 45 : 6, 7, we have a passage which is re- 
produced in Heb. 1 : 8, 9, as a proof of the superiority 
of Jesus to the angels : 

Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever; 

A sceptre of equity is the sceptre of thy kingdom. 

The psalm undoubtedly has primary reference to an 
earthly king, as is evident from such phrases as " the 
queen in gold of Ophir," and "the daughter of Tyre" ; 
but the writer is moved by the Holy Spirit to use lan- 
guage in the verses quoted in the New Testament such 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 239 

as can with extreme difficulty be applied to any earthly 
monarch. Those who deny that there is an element 
of double reference in the Scriptures are sorely troubled 
by this passage. Kuenen says : " The predicate ' God ' 
is assigned to the person here addressed. Does not 
this circumstance absolutely forbid us to see in him an 
earthly king ? In truth, the question at first causes us 
perplexity. We are inclined to answer it in the affirm- 
ative. There are no passages in which the Hebrew 
word ' Elohim ' is clearly applied to man." Both 
Kuenen and Toy, after rejecting all the efforts of 
others to give the passage as it stands an explanation 
consonant with the reference of the words to a human 
being, adopt the supposition that something has 
dropped out of the text in the process of copying. Of 
this, however, there is absolutely no evidence. Such 
as the Hebrew text is to-day it was in the apostolic 
age, and in that of the translators of the Septuagint, 
two centuries before the Epistle to the Hebrews was 
written. It is only by the most violent methods, there- 
fore, that this psalm can be regarded as other than an 
instance of double reference, in which the language 
spoken of an earthly king rises to so lofty a pitch that 
it plainly points to the King of kings and Lord of 
lords. The passage thus presents us an instance in 
which the secondary reference is indicated by an over- 
flow of language. The prophetic author shows that 
he regards the immediate object of his poem as a type 
of Christ by breaking forth into a strain of phrase- 
ology too lofty to be applied to any earthly monarch, 
precisely as Tennyson shows that the ocean which bore 
Arthur from his people is the ocean of time, by using 



240 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

terms in reference to it which cannot be applied to the 
literal ocean. 

V. These examples may have sufficed to suggest 
to the reader the abundance of the typical element 
in the Old Testament. Of this element Tholuck 
says : 

If we adhere to the Redeemer himself, we believe it can be 
put beyond all doubt that, in declaring that the Old Testament 
bore witness to him, he referred principally to its typical aspect. 
When, in Luke 24 : 27, 44, 45, it is said that he proved to his 
disciples the necessity of his sufferings and his glory, from Moses 
and all the prophets, whence could he take such passages with a 
typical exposition? Must not John 3 : 14, "As Moses lifted up 
the serpent," etc., etc., be accepted as a plain indication of our 
Lord's method on this occasion ? 

There are two remarkable passages relative to this subject 
which have not yet been noticed (Matt. 11 : 14 and Mark 9 : 
13) ; in the latter of which it is said, " But I say unto you that 
Elijah is come, and they have also done unto him whatsoever 
they listed, even as it is written of him." First of all, these 
passages show that the Redeemer understood what is said of 
Elijah in Mai. 4 : 5 in a typical sense of him who came in the 
spirit of Elijah under the New Covenant (Luke 1 : 17). Still 
more striking are the last words in the passage of Mark, " as it 
is written of him." What is therein the Old Testament respect- 
ing the sufferings of John the Baptist ? Can any one persuade 
himself that Christ would ever forcibly take a passage out of its 
connection and refer it directly to the Baptist ? These words re- 
main inexplicable so long as it is not admitted that Christ, as far 
as the idea of Elijah was realized in the Baptist, looked upon 
the sufferings of the Old Testament Elijah as a typical prophecy 
of those of his copy. In perfect analogy with Christ's conduct 
on this occasion is what he says in John 13 : 18 1 and 15 : 25, 2 

1 " He that eateth my bread lifted up his heel against me." 

2 " They hated me without a cause." 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 241 

that the words in Ps. 41 and 69 were fulfilled in himself; or 
when in Luke 22 : 37 he considers the words, "and he was 
reckoned with the transgressors," as a thing "written," which 
was to be fulfilled in him. So also in that last exclamation on 
the cross, " Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani," will such a typical refer- 
ence be admitted ; not as if a reflection on his own lot compared 
with David' s had led him to these words ; but that with the rec- 
ollection of these words, a consciousness of their typical char- 
acter had been present at the same time. And certainly all 
typical references of this kind are taken in their full significance 
only when the Old Testament saints, as well as those of the 
New, are considered as members of one and the same mystical 
Christ who is described in history. 

VI. In an excellent article on this subject by Rev. 
W. W. McLane, d. d., published in the " Homiletic 
Review" for June, 1890, two kinds of types are recog- 
nized : 

Those types of which Christ is the antitype may be divided 
into two classes. There are types of Christ in which the re- 
semblance lies in external circumstances, in outward relations, 
and in incidents of personal experience, like the lifting up of 
the brazen serpent in the wilderness, and like the experience of 
Jonah, in which Jesus saw types of his crucifixion and resurrec- 
tion. There are other types of Christ which formed a perma- 
nent part of the ceremonial system of the Old Testament, and 
which were a means of education, in which the resemblance lies 
in the spirit rather than in the form, however much resemblance 
there may be also in the form, and which continued to exist 
until they were fulfilled in Christ. Biologists distinguish be- 
tween analogous forms and homologous forms. Those organs 
of different animals which, however different their origin, have 
a similarity of form and function, are said to be analogous. 
The wing of a bird and the wing of a butterfly are analogous 
organs ; they have the same function, but they have not the 
same origin. Those organs of different animals which have the 

V 



242 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

same origin, though they may be modified for different purposes, 
are said to be homologous. The wing of a bird, the forepaw of 
a reptile, and the arm and hand of a man, are homologous 
organs, having the same origin. Their relation lies in some- 
thing deeper than mere form. We may make the same distinc- 
tion between the two classes of types now under consideration. 
There are analogous types of Christ, and there are homologous 
types of Christ. The incidents in the life of Joseph, Moses, 
David, and Jonah, which correspond to incidents in the life of 
Christ, are analogous types of Christ ; they have resemblance in 
relationship ; but they do not form an essential and inseparable 
part of that process of revelation and redemption by which God 
is fulfilling his eternal purpose. The central elements of the 
ceremonial system of the Old Testament, such as the sacrifice, 
the priesthood, and the tabernacle, are homologous types of 
Christ. They constitute an essential and an inseparable part of 
the process of divine revelation and human redemption. Their 
truest resemblance to Christ must be sought and found in the 
source and spirit of salvation which they symbolize. 

VII. Among the recent helpful thoughts on this 
subject is that of Professor Burnham, of Colgate Uni- 
versity, not yet published, but which he makes part 
of his class-room instruction. In substance, it is as 
follows : 

The Old Testament prophet, speaking of some object of his 
thought, may see the object in a different light from that of the 
New Testament writer who quotes his language, or from a differ- 
ent point of view, or in a larger measure. The uneducated per- 
son, when he speaks of the law of gravitation, has a conception 
very different from that of the astronomer who uses the same 
language; he thinks of the movements of a clod or a stone, 
while the astronomer thinks of worlds and the order of the 
universe. So the prophet, straining his vision forward in the 
twilight of the Jewish dispensation, may see the Messiah but 
dimly and write of him in broken phrases, which the inspired 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 243 

teachers of Christianity, seeing in the full effulgence of the noon- 
day, may quote with propriety as rinding their completion in the 
Christ with whom they had an acquaintance so much larger and 
fuller. Any difficulties to be found in such prophetic passages, 
and in their adjustment to their setting in the New Testament, 
will arise from the necessary limitations of the holy men who first 
penned them. 

VIII. An instance of this kind may be found at 
John 12 : 40, 41, where Isa. 6 : 9, 10 is quoted : 

He hath blinded their eyes, and he hardened their heart; 

Lest they should see with their eyes, and perceive with their heart, 

And should turn, 

And I should heal them. 

The quotation immediately preceding this one is 
from Isa. 53:1. John comments as follows on the 
two : " These things said Isaiah, because he saw his 
glory ; and he spake of him." Thus Isaiah penned 
his fifty-third chapter, from which the first quotation is 
taken, and also his sixth chapter, from which the 
second quotation is taken, because he had a vision of 
the Messiah in glory. His fifty-third chapter is chiefly 
concerned with the humiliation of Christ ; yet gleams 
of glory break through its darkest clouds : " Therefore 
will I divide him a portion with the great, and he shall 
divide the spoil with the strong." But in his sixth 
chapter the prophet describes a vision of far greater 
splendor. Few passages in even inspired literature are 
more magnificent than this. The glory which he be- 
held was that of Jehovah ; and John applies the pas- 
sage to Christ, because the Christ of the New Testa- 
ment is the Jehovah of the Old, the essential Deity. 



244 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

This identification is not peculiar to John, but runs 
through the whole New Testament. Thus Meyer : 
" In the Old Testament theophanies it is precisely 
Christ who is present as the Logos, and the glory is 
his. Of course the glory of Christ before the incar- 
nation is intended, the ' form of God ' in which he 
was." 

The Jehovah thus revealed to Isaiah commissioned 
him to go to the Jewish people with messages of warn- 
ing and entreaty and hope. He told him plainly, how- 
ever, that his message would be rejected, owing to the 
hardness of the hearts to whom it was sent ; nay, that 
in many cases it would even increase the obduracy, 
instead of removing it. The statement had its most 
perfect fulfillment in the rejection of Christ by his 
people. If they would not bear the twilight of type 
and prophecy, they would certainly be repelled by the 
full blaze of celestial glory which the person of Jesus 
shed on them. 

IX. A recognition by Christ of the typical element 
in the Old Testament is found at John I : 51, where 
he refers to Gen. 28 : 12. We are there told that 
Jacob "dreamed, and behold a ladder set up on the 
earth, and the top of it reached to heaven : and behold 
the angels of God ascending and descending on it." 
In the Gospel our Lord applies this language to him- 
self : " Ye shall see the heaven opened, and the angels 
of God ascending and descending upon the Son of 
man." He does not say that the vision of Jacob is to 
be regarded as in a special sense a prophecy, for it was 
designed to teach Jacob that God watched over him 
and sent his angels to minister to him. Yet it is most 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 245 

completely fulfilled in him who is the medium of com- 
munication between God and man ; and hence it is a 
vivid symbol of him in his mediatorial office, and is 
presented to us as such in this allusion to it. 

X. A similar use is made of the Old Testament in 
John 6:31, where the language of Ps. 78 : 24 is ap- 
plied to Christ himself. The psalmist remembered the 
manna, and wrote : 

And gave them of the corn of heaven. 

The hearers of Christ cited this line in a free version : 
" He gave them bread out of heaven to eat," and asked 
him to produce some sign. He answered that he him- 
self was the sign they demanded : " The bread of God 
is that which cometh down out of heaven and giveth 
life unto the world." The manna was a symbol of 
Christ in its origin and its life-giving properties. 

XL The same typical interpretation is found in John 
15 125, where our Lord says that the opposition of his 
foes " cometh to pass, that the word may be fulfilled 
that is written in their law, They hated me without a 
cause." The quotation is probably from Ps. 69 : 4, 
which we have found Messianic in so many other pas- 
sages, the psalmist speaking of himself, but so speak- 
ing under the guidance of the Holy Spirit as to become 
a type of Christ, since the things he speaks are ful- 
filled perfectly in Christ, and only imperfectly in him- 
self. The expression is also found in Ps. 35 : 19 ; and 
expressions like it in Ps. 109 : 3 and 119 : 161. 

XII. This typical interpretation is found again at 
John 19 : 24 : 



246 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

That the Scripture might be fulfilled, which saith, 
They parted my garments among them, 
And upon my vesture did they cast lots. 

The lines are from Ps. 22 : 18. The psalm is 
touchingly Messianic in many parts. Its opening 
words were used by our Lord on the cross. The only 
objection made to the quotation is erroneous. It is 
stated thus by Toy: "The parallelism, however, is not 
a strict one ; the soldiers took the garments, not out 
of enmity to him whom they crucified, but as custom- 
ary perquisites." It is true they took the garments "as 
customary perquisites." But they took them also " out 
of enmity to him whom they crucified." Had they 
been his disciples, they would not have taken them ; 
and it was therefore as sharers of the world's great 
enmity to him that they took them. Their horrible but 
ignorant enmity is evident from Matt. 27 : 27-31, where 
we are told that " the whole band " of the " soldiers of 
the governor " stripped him, crowned him with thorns, 
mocked him with satirical reverence, spat upon him, 
and smote him on the head. The psalmist seems to 
contemplate in a part of his prayer persons who were 
actuated by just such popular and ignorant enmity as 
this, as where he says : 

I am a worm, and no man, 

A reproach of men, and despised of the people. 

And the part of the psalm from which the lines are 
taken by the evangelist is of this kind : 

The assembly of evil-doers have inclosed me. 

XIII. The quotation in John 19 : 36 is probably 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 247 

from Exod. 12 : 46 and Num. 9:12. The soldiers 
did not break the legs of Christ, " that the Scripture 
might be fulfilled, A bone of him shall not be broken." 
In the passages referred to in Exodus and Numbers 
the Israelites are forbidden to " break a bone" of the 
paschal lamb. But the paschal lamb was a most vivid 
symbol of " Christ, our passover." Perhaps it was 
to mark this prophetic character of the paschal lamb 
that the time of his offering was that of the Pass- 
over. The prescription to avoid breaking a bone of 
the lamb can scarcely be assigned any other meaning 
than a prophetic one, which makes it point to the ex- 
emption of Christ from this cruelty when he was on 
the cross. The paschal lamb as a type of Christ is 
referred to in John 1 : 29, 36 ; 1 Cor. 5 : 7 ; 1 Peter 
1:19; and in the Revelation in no less than twenty- 
eight places. In preparing the lamb for roasting, 
the Jews ran spits through it in the form of a cross, 
as the Samaritans do to this day. 

The derivation of the quotation from these sources 
is so natural that no other source need be sought. Yet 
it is possible that the evangelist had Ps. 34 : 20 also in 
mind. This psalm celebrates the care of God for the 
righteous man, and says that, 

He keepeth all his bones : 
Not one of them is broken. 

The evangelist may have regarded these lines as ful- 
filled in Christ, who was the only perfectly righteous 
man, the beloved son of God, and the object of his 
most tender care even when dying upon the cross. 



248 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

XIV. In Luke 1:17 the prophecy of Mai. 3:1; 
4 : 5, 6 is referred to by Gabriel as about to be ful- 
filled in the person of John the Baptist : " He shall go 
before his face in the spirit and power of Elijah, to 
turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the 
disobedient to walk in the wisdom of the just ; to 
make ready for the Lord a people prepared for him." 
Elijah was thus a type of the Baptist. The prophecy 
is interpreted in this typical sense also by our Lord 
(Matt. 11 : 14 ; 17 : 10-12 ; Mark 9 : 1 1-1 3). There is no 
discrepancy between this view and the express denial of 
John the Baptist that he was Elijah (John 1 : 21, 25); 
for the question of the Pharisees was asked in the lit- 
eral sense of the words, and therefore required an an- 
swer in the same sense. 

XV. Another quotation of the kind now before us 
is found in Acts 1 : 20, from Ps. 69 : 25 : 

Let his habitation be made desolate, 
And let no man dwell therein. 

In the original the plural number is used : 

Let their habitation be made desolate, 
And let none dwell in their tents. 

It is changed by the Apostle Peter to the singular, 
because the passage is applied by him to the betrayer, 
and this alteration is of the first class illustrated in our 
fourth chapter. The apostle does not say that it was 
written originally with reference to Judas ; it denounces 
a number of wicked men who sought the destruction 
of the psalmist, and, through him, of the reign of God 
and of righteousness in Israel. But as the psalmist 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 249 

was a type of Christ, so those whose sympathy with 
evil led them to seek his life were types of Judas and 
of all persecutors. If any one should fail to perceive 
these typical relations, the view expressed by Hackett 
may appear preferable : 

When Peter declares that this prophecy, which he applies to 
Judas, was spoken with special reference to him (see ver. 16), 
he makes the impressive announcement to those whom he ad- 
dressed, that the conduct of Judas had identified him fully with 
such persecutors of the righteous as the psalm contemplates, 
and hence it was necessary that he should suffer the doom de- 
served by those who sin in so aggravated a manner. 

But, considering the typical element in general litera- 
ture, and its likeness to portions of this psalm, I adopt 
the words of Dr. Lyman Abbott, who holds the psalm 
to contain prophecies of Christ "because David him- 
self was a prophecy of the Messiah," and " describing 
his own literal experiences, he unconsciously prophesied 
both the sufferings and triumph of the Messiah." If 
we shall deem this typical view sustained, we shall not 
regard the whole psalm as typical. Verse 5 certainly is 
not. We have seen already that it is a characteristic 
of all typical literature that the typical meanings appear 
and disappear, as the writer wishes. 

XVI. The next quotation, which occurs in the same 
verse, is of the same typical character. It is from 
Ps. 109 : 8: " His office let another take." It is 
usually interpreted like the preceding, either as an 
imprecation which finds its fulfillment in the fate of 
all the desperately wicked, and hence in the fate of 
Judas, or as an imprecation of one who was a special 



250 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

type of the betrayer. Gloag 1 says : " In this psalm 
David is supposed to refer to Doeg, the Edomite, or to 
Ahithophel. It is the most imprecatory of all the 
psalms, and may well be termed the Iscariot psalm." 

Another interpretation, however, is proposed by 
Kennicott, Mendelsohn, and C. Taylor, and is adopted 
by Kuenen, who says : 

The poet rather appears in verses 6-19 to enumerate the 
curses which his enemies heap upon him, for which reason also 
the third person singular is used in these verses, while the poet's 
enemies are always spoken of in the plural (ver. 2-5, 20, 25, 27- 
29). The poet, however, hurls back upon his haters these male- 
dictions uttered against him, for to verses 9-16 he subjoins : 

Let this be the reward of my adversaries from Jahveh, 
And of those who speak evil against my soul. 

Or, in other words, May the lot which they wish me befall 
themselves. Thus the poet is not free from vindictiveness ; but 
he has not been guilty of devising those numerous and some- 
times frightful imprecations which precede. It needs no proof 
to show that Peter, as introduced in the Acts as speaking, would 
have withheld his quotation, if he had been acquainted with 
this interpretation of the psalm, which for the rest so well de- 
serves to be accepted. 

This interpretation of the psalm seems to me correct 
in substance. The poet represents himself in verses 
3-5 as gentle and pacific, and contrasts his disposition 
with that of his enemies. " It is almost inconceivable," 
as Kuenen says, " that he should immediately there- 
after burst forth into maledictions of them." Be- 
sides, the maledictions of the enemies are referred to in 
later parts of the psalm (ver. 20, 28), as if they had 

1 " Commentary on the Acts." 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 25 1 

been recited in the earlier part. Again, where he 
speaks of his foes, the plural is employed, and where 
they speak of him, the singular. This distinction runs 
through the whole psalm and renders our interpreta- 
tion almost necessary. It is no objection to this view that 
the words of the enemies are introduced without any 
special formula of quotation, like "they say," for such 
an introduction of the words of a speaker without an in- 
troductory formula is not uncommon in Hebrew poetry. 
(See for example Ps. 22 : 7 ; 2 : 3.) 

In one thing the interpretation is needlessly harsh. 
It makes the writer hurl back the imprecations of his 
foes, and pray that they themselves may suffer the evils 
they have invoked upon him. I take verse 20, how- 
ever, to be a mere statement of fact, a prophecy, and 
not a prayer. Instead of rendering the verse, " Let 
this be the reward of mine adversaries," I should render 
it, with the revisers of the English Bible, " This is the 
reward." That the words are most easily and natu- 
rally rendered thus every Hebrew scholar will grant ; 
and if the great majority render them as a prayer, it is 
because they come to them with a theory already con- 
ceived as to what they must mean. Reading the 
psalm in this manner, it wholly ceases to be impre- 
catory, while at the same time it states the undoubted 
truth that curses recoil upon those who utter them. 

This interpretation of the psalm would not change 
its relation to Judas, or forbid Peter to apply it to him, 
as Kuenen strangely affirms. Does the psalmist in 
verse 20 adopt the maledictions of his enemies, and 
hurl them back ? Then they become as much his own 
as if he had uttered them himself. Or does he merely 



252 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

speak as a prophet, and predict that their curses shall 
fall on their own heads ? Then the saying was ful- 
filled. In either case Peter would use the words ex- 
actly as he did. But we are assured in Acts 1:15, 
16, that he took them as a prophecy : " It was needful 
that the Scripture should be fulfilled, which the Holy 
Spirit spake before by the mouth of David concerning 
Judas." Of course, the original fulfillment was a type 
of their later fulfillment in the fate of the traitor, as 
of their repeated fulfillment in the fate of all malevo- 
lent and wicked men. 

XVII. In Gen. 17 : 5 we have a promise which the 
Apostle Paul at Rom. 4:17 quotes as typical. It is 
an admirable illustration of the typical character of 
much Old Testament history, for, even without the 
typical use of it made by the apostle, the Christian 
who believes that the revelation of God to Abraham 
was but a part of his plan to establish the kingdom of 
his Son, readily perceives its typical character. The 
apostle in this fourth chapter of his great epistle is 
showing that the heirs of Abraham are not limited to 
those who observe the Mosaic law. His argument is 
as follows : The promise that Abraham should be the 
father of an innumerable offspring was given to him on 
account of his faith, and before the covenant of cir- 
cumcision (ver. 3; Gen. 15 : 1-7). Moreover, it was 
not given to him through the Mosaic law, but centu- 
ries before the law was proclaimed (ver. 13). If only 
those who perfectly obey the Mosaic law are heirs of 
this promise, then none can be heirs ; for none per- 
fectly obey the law (ver. 14, 15). The promise of an 
innumerable offspring was given to Abraham in an- 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 253 

swer to his faith, and not on the impossible condition 
of his perfect legal righteousness, in order that it 
might be sure, and not empty (ver. 16). As the 
promise was given to Abraham that he should be the 
father of an innumerable offspring in response to his 
faith, before circumcision and the law, so those who 
have a faith like his are properly his spiritual descend- 
ants, and not those alone who are circumcised and 
scrupulously keep the law. Thus the argument is 
based upon historic facts with which every Jew was 
familiar. 

Nor will the Christian believe readily that the giving 
of the promise to Abraham before the covenant of cir- 
cumcision was a mere accident. The history of Abra- 
ham is a part of the history of redemption, and there 
was a divine purpose in the ordering of its events. 
The blessing of God was pronounced upon faith before 
the establishment of circumcision and the law, for the 
very reason that the apostle discovers, that faith might 
have the first emphasis, and be seen to be the condi- 
tion of salvation by grace. 

At the close of the argument the apostle quotes the 
expression of Gen. 17:5: "I have made thee a father 
of many nations," as typically applicable to all Gen- 
tiles and Jews who have Abrahamic faith. The 
immediate reference of the promise was to the nations 
other than Israel which should spring from Abraham, 
such as the Ishmaelites and Edomites. Perhaps Abra- 
ham himself at first saw little more in the words than 
this. But can any Christian believe that God in all 
his promises of a numerous offspring to Abraham, 
had nothing more in mind than a natural offspring ? 



254 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Was that a worthy object of his solicitude to select a 
family out of the world and guide it by special inter- 
ventions and commit to it his oracles ? Or did he not 
plan from the beginning to establish on earth the holy 
religion of his Son, and prepare for it in all these early 
revelations ? Did he not purposely place in his revela- 
tions of himself to the patriarchs, types and shadows 
that should teach the more thoughtful in proportion as 
they were able to bear the light ? If we condemn the 
typical use of Old Testament history here made by the 
apostle, we must proceed upon a rule which would con- 
vert the Old Testament into a mere secular literature, 
with no special manifestation of God in the history it 
contains. 

The comment of Toy on this quotation is worthy of 
reproduction for its extraordinary view of the Old 
Testament. This interpretation of the " many 
nations," he says, "is in illustration of the argument 
of Paul that the promise to Abraham was not con- 
ditioned on circumcision, and not limited to the Jews : 
a position the reverse of that taken in Genesis and 
elsewhere in the Old Testament." This calls for two 
remarks : I. The position taken in Genesis is precisely 
that stated by the apostle : the book of Genesis assures 
us that the promise of an innumerable offspring was 
made to Abraham before anything about circumcision 
was said to him (Gen. 12 : 2 ; 13 : 14-17 ; 15 : 5), and 
long before the giving of the law. 2. The Old Testa- 
ment promises the extension of the kingdom of God 
to the Gentiles, and that in numerous places, some of 
which the writers of the New Testament have pointed 
out. Nor is there in any of these places a single word 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 255 

concerning the circumcision of the Gentiles as a con- 
dition of their reception. Indeed, one might almost 
say that the prophets of the Old Testament are as free 
from legalism as the Apostle Paul himself. After the 
book of Joshua circumcision is mentioned but twice in 
the entire Old Testament (Jer. 4:459:25). In the 
first of these instances the prophet enjoins spiritual 
and not fleshly circumcision ; and in the second he 
declares to the Jews that, though they were circum- 
cised in the flesh, they should be treated exactly like 
the uncircumcised peoples about them, because they 
were not circumcised in heart. Thus the teaching of 
the Old Testament in reference to this rite is in 
exact harmony with that of the New ; and the 
apostle to the Gentiles contended not against the 
Old Testament, but against the rabbis, in his doctrine 
of circumcision. 

XVIII. Another typical quotation is that of Ps. 69 : 
22, 23, in Rom. 11:9, 10. Much of the psalm is re- 
garded in the New Testament as Messianic, containing, 
as it does, such lines as these : 

For the zeal of thine house hath eaten me up. 

They gave me also gall for my meat ; 

And in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink. 

If the psalmist in such expressions was a prophetic 
type of Christ, his adversaries were types of Christ's 
adversaries ; and the calamities invoked upon the 
wicked who hated the king chosen by God of old, were 
prophetic of the calamities which should befall the 
murderers of the King of kings, as indeed of the fate 
of all who resist the divine will. 



256 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

XIX. In I Cor. 9:9, 10, Deut. 25:4 is quoted, 
and is followed by a comment. The Apostle Paul is 
teaching that the churches ought to provide for the 
support of Christian ministers. As one proof of this, 
he adduces the prescription of the law : " Thou shalt 
not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn." 
He then adds : " Is it for the oxen that God careth, or 
saith he it assuredly for our sake ? Yea, for our sake 
it was written : because he that ploweth ought to plow 
in hope, and he that thresheth, to thresh in hope of 
partaking." The Common version and the English 
revisers have " altogether," instead of the " assuredly" 
preferred by the American revisers. The Greek word 
may mean either, and it is a needless embarrassment of 
the passage to give it the harsher sense. 

The apostle does not say that God has no care for 
animals in general and at any time ; he knew the state- 
ments of Scripture to the contrary (Job 38 : 41 ; Ps. 
147 : 9), and specially the words of his Lord, concern- 
ing " the birds of the heaven," in Matt. 6 : 26 and 
Luke 12 : 24 : " Your heavenly Father feedeth them." 
All expositors of note hold that he limits his view to 
the text immediately before him, and declares that in 
it God is caring for men rather than for oxen. The 
statement is strong, and is not intended to be inter- 
preted in a narrow and mechanical way ; it is like the 
words of Jesus : " Whosoever smiteth thee on thy 
right cheek, turn to him the other also " ; " Whosoever 
shall compel thee to go one mile, go with him twain " ; 
" If any man cometh unto me and hateth not his own 
father, and mother, and wife, and children, and breth- 
ren, and sisters, yea, and his own life also, he cannot 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 257 

be my disciple." Such sweeping statements are com- 
mon in all literatures, where the writer is moved by 
great earnestness, and they are often necessary to a 
truthful expression of deep feeling. English literature 
abounds with them. I may instance the speech of 
Macbeth, whose hands are stained with blood sufficient 
perhaps to tinge a basin of water, but who cries out 
that it would 

The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
Making the green one red. 

The statement, thus interpreted, presents but one 
further question. Is it true that in this command God 
regards man chiefly ? There are several precepts of 
the Mosaic law touching humanity to animals which 
carry this humanity, speaking reverently, to an ex- 
treme, and must have been designed to affect men, 
since they do not affect animals in any direct manner. 
Such, for example, is the law of Deut. 22 : 6, 7 : "If 
a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way, in 
any tree, or on the ground, with young ones or eggs, 
and the dam sitting upon the young or upon the eggs, 
thou shalt not take the dam with the young : thou 
shalt in anywise let the dam go, but the young thou 
mayest take unto thyself ; that it may be well with 
thee, and that thou mayest prolong thy days." It is 
difficult to see what favorable effect this would have 
upon the mother-bird, as it would bereave her of her 
young, in any case, and does not forbid her capture at 
another time. But it would teach tenderness in 
general, and especially toward women under the bur- 
dens of maternity, for whose sake chiefly it was writ- 



258 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

ten. Such, again, is the law thrice recorded (Exod. 
23 : 19 ; 34 : 26 ; Deut. 14:21): " Thou shalt not 
seethe a kid in its mother's milk " It could make no 
difference either to the dead kid or to the living 
mother, whether the dish were prepared in this way or 
not ; but the precept may have had much influence in 
creating tenderness of feeling toward motherhood in 
general, and toward the young ; and its chief value 
would consist in its effect upon human beings. Such 
again is the law of Lev. 22 : 28 : " Whether it be a 
cow or a ewe, ye shall not kill it and her young both in 
one day." It could make but little difference to the 
animals whether they were killed together, or with an 
interval of one day between ; but this precept would 
affect the owner, and teach him tenderness of heart, 
especially toward human mothers and their children. 
Such also is the law forbidding the muzzling of the ox 
when it trod out the grain. The precept affected the 
ox but little, since the process of threshing lasted but 
a few days, and a cruel owner would stint it all the 
year besides, while a kind owner would feed it well in 
any case, even if he muzzled it while it was engaged 
at this work. But the precept would teach thought- 
fulness in general, and in particular kindness to work- 
ing people. Thus this view, taken by the apostle, 
arises naturally from a careful consideration of the 
precept and of the class to which it belongs. These 
laws, though they speak of birds and beasts, are typi- 
cal of human relationships ; they are designed to fos- 
ter pity for the helpless of all kinds, whether animals 
or men and women and children ; and their value 
would consist chiefly in their effect upon human beings, 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 259 

since, as our Saviour says, " How much is a man of 
more value than a sheep ? " 

Meyer regards the interpretation of the precept by 
the apostle as " typico-allegorical." It would be better 
to regard the precept itself as typical and the interpre- 
tation as a statement of its real character in the strong 
language of deep conviction and earnest feeling. 

XX. I have discussed in another place the quotation 
of 2 Sam. 7 : 14 in 2 Cor. 6 : 18, if the quotation 
there is indeed from this source. Let me notice the 
more nearly literal quotation of the passage in Heb. 
1:5, where it is considered as uttered by Jehovah 
with reference to the Messiah : 

I will be to him a Father, 
And he shall be to me a Son. 

The words are a part of the remarkable prophecy of 
Nathan to David touching Solomon and the Davidic 
dynasty. The prophecy is strongly typical in struc- 
ture, containing much language which can be applied to 
the ordinary offspring of David only by a strained and 
unnatural interpretation, and which finds an easy, 
natural, and complete fulfillment in that son of David 
who is also the Son of God. The words quoted were 
immediately applicable to Solomon, in so far as he was 
a child of God and moved by the spirit of Christ, as 
they are applicable in this sense to all good people. 1 
But Solomon was a type of the Son of God not only 
in so far as he was himself a child of God, but also 
externally, as the king of Israel and the prince of 

1 See discussion of them as they are perhaps quoted in 2 Cor. 6 : 18. 



26o QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

peace. The words, therefore, though spoken of the 
earthly monarch, glanced forward to the heavenly, like 
other words of this prophecy, as for example those 
which declare that the throne of the son of David 
shall be " established for ever," that the house and 
kingdom of David shall be " made sure for ever." 
That David himself, and other holy men of old, regarded 
the prophecy as strongly Messianic is probable from 
Ps. 89 and 132. 

XXI. In Gal. 3 : 16 the writer quotes from Gen. 
13 : 15 and 17 : 7, 8. The effort to find the quota- 
tion in other passages is not successful. In these 
places Moses records a promise made to Abraham that 
the land of Canaan should be given to him " and to his 
seed forever." In the New Testament generally the 
promised land is considered a type of spiritual bless- 
ings, and specially of the kingdom of heaven in its 
completed state, so that this application of it here 
need not detain us. (See specially Heb. 11.) 

The comment of the apostle upon the passage has 
given rise to much discussion. It is objected that the 
stress of the argument rests upon a minute point of 
grammar, and that in reference to this the apostle is 
wrong. " He saith not, And to seeds, as of many ; 
but as of one, And to thy seed, which is Christ." The 
objector reminds us correctly that the Hebrew word 
" seed," in the singular, is used in the passage quoted 
as a collective noun, with the force of a plural ; and 
that, secondly, had the plural, seeds, been used, it 
would not have meant offspring, children, descendants, 
but various kinds of seeds. " But the apostle," the 
objector continues, " regards the singular, seed, not as 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 261 

a collective noun, but as referring to an individual, and 
assumes that the plural, seeds, would have been used 
had more than one individual been intended." The 
grammatical facts on which this criticism is based were 
perfectly well known to the apostle, who in the twenty- 
ninth verse of this very chapter uses the singular, seed, 
as a collective noun, as also in Rom. 1 : 3 ; 4 : 16, 18 ; 
9 : 7. They were known to his readers as well, for 
the argument was written in Greek, and though they 
were ignorant of Hebrew, the same things are true of 
the corresponding Greek expressions, as they are also 
of the English, so that the alleged error of argument, 
had it existed, would have been detected at once. The 
objection, therefore, which assumes that the apostle 
was either ignorant of the grammatical points involved, 
or made a sophistical representation of them, must be 
erroneous. 

Two interpretations of this passage are worthy of 
consideration. 

The first is stated thus by Lightfoot : " He is not 
laying stress on the particular word used, but on the 
fact that a singular noun of some kind, a collective 
term, is employed, where 'children,' or 'offspring,' for 
instance, might have been substituted. Avoiding the 
technical terms of grammar, he could not express his 
meaning more simply than by the opposition : ' not to 
thy seeds, but to thy seed.' ' In other words, the 
apostle regards it as noteworthy that any noun in the 
singular was used, even one which has a collective 
sense, instead of a plural. 

According to this intepretation, the " seed " referred 
to is the personal Christ, on the ground that Israel 



262 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

is a type of Christ. The typical relation of the two is 
stated by Lightfoot thus : 

With a true spiritual instinct, though the conception embodied 
itself at times in strangely grotesque and artificial forms, even 
the rabbinical writers saw that ' ' the Christ ' ' was the true seed 
of Abraham. In him the race was summed up, as it were. 
In him it fulfilled its purpose and became a blessing to the 
whole earth. Without him its separate existence as a peculiar 
people had no meaning. Thus he was not only the representa- 
tive, but the embodiment of the race. In this way the people of 
Israel is the type of Christ ; and in the New Testament, parallels 
are sought in the career of the one to the life of the other. See 
especially the application of Hosea 1 1 : i to our Lord in Matt. 
2:15. In this sense St. Paul uses the "seed of Abraham" 
here. 

The second interpretation sees in "the seed" of this 
quotation a collective noun, with the force of a plural ; 
for it regards the " Christ " of this verse as, so to speak, 
the collective Christ, the church, of which Christ is the 
Head. It is well stated by Allord : 

If the word " Christ " in this verse imports only the personal 
Christ Jesus, why is it not so expressed, Christ Jesus ? For the 
word does not here occur in passing, but is the predicate of a 
very definite and important proposition. The fact is that we 
must place ourselves in St. Paul's position with regard to the 
idea of Christ, before we can appreciate all he meant here. 
Christians are, not by a figure, but really, the body of Christ. 
Christ contains his people, and the mention even of the personal 
Christ would bring with it, in the apostle's mind, the inclusion 
of his believing people. This seed is Christ, not merely in the 
narrower sense, the man Christ Jesus, but Christ the seed, Christ 
the second Adam, Christ the head of the body. And that this 
is so is plain from verses 28 and 29, which are the key to " which 
is Christ " ; where he says, "for all ye are one in Christ Jesus " 
(notice "Jesus" here carefully inserted, where the person is 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 263 

indicated). "And if ye are Christ's, then are ye Abraham's 
seed, heirs according to the promise." So that, while it is nec- 
essary for the form of the argument here, to express Him to 
whom the promises were made, and not the aggregate of his 
people, afterward to be identified with him (but not yet in view), 
yet the apostle has introduced his name in a form not circum- 
scribing his personality, but leaving room for the inclusion of his 
mystical body. 

This view is justified by an inspection of the whole 
argument of the apostle in this part of the epistle. 
His proposition is that " they which be of faith, the 
same are sons of Abraham " (ver. 7). He proves this, 
first, by an appeal to those scriptures which predict 
that all the nations shall be blessed in Abraham, which 
could only be fulfilled through their faith, inasmuch as 
the law was not for them (ver. 8, 9). He proves it 
secondly, by the fact that the law brings a curse upon 
sinners, and not a blessing, since in order to bring a 
blessing it must be perfectly kept, a requirement which 
no one has ever fulfilled (ver. 10). This curse sinners 
can escape only through faith in Christ, who has re- 
deemed them from it (ver. 1 1-14). He proves it thirdly, 
by the fact that God made a covenant with Abraham, 
based upon his faith, centuries before the law, promis- 
ing to give the land of Canaan, the blessings of the 
kingdom of heaven, to him and to his seed, and that 
the gracious Promiser in this solemn covenant did not 
speak of all the various sorts of offspring of Abraham, 
those by Ishmael and the sons of Keturah, for exam- 
ple, but only of one kind, the Christ-kind, born of 
faith (ver. 15, 16). Nor, by implication, could this 
promise be claimed by the Jews as such, who were 



264 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

only natural descendants of Abraham ; but since it was 
made in response to the faith of the patriarch, it must 
refer to him and to those who possess his spiritual like- 
ness. Thus the argument, from beginning to end, 
requires us to regard believers as the " seed," and the 
" Christ," mentioned in verse 16, as including his people. 
It would be traveling completely out of the path of 
the argument to mention the personal Christ there, 
except as he is the head and representative of his 
people. 

The argument of the verse is then, that in the prom- 
ise to Abraham God did not use a plural noun, like 
" sons," but a collective noun, which had both the force 
of a plural and a suggestion of unity, and showed that 
the seed were to be of the same kind with believing 
Abraham, and "one in Christ Jesus," in order to be 
heirs of the promise. Conybeare 1 says this in sub- 
stance : " The meaning of the argument is, that the 
recipients of God's promises are not to be looked on 
as an aggregate of different individuals, or of differ- 
ent races, but are all one body, whereof Christ is the 
head." 

We may also adopt the sentiment of Farrar 2 : "In 
the interpretation then of this word, St. Paul reads be- 
tween the lines of the original, and is enabled to see 
in it deep meanings, which are the true but not the 
primary ones." But when he says that the reference 
is "purely illustrative," we may hesitate to follow him. 
For the choice of the singular noun in Gen. 17:8, in- 
stead of a plural, is not without significance, even to 

1 " Life and Epistles of St. Paul," Vol II., p. 142, note I. 

2 » Life and Work of St. Paul," Vol. L, p. 53. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 265 

the historic interpreter, who seeks its primary meaning, 
with no thought of the uses here made of it. In the 
preceding part of the chapter God promises that Abra- 
ham shall be a "father of a multitude of nations." 
This is repeated thrice, to make it emphatic, and it 
refers to all those peoples who should descend from 
him through his other sons as well as through Isaac, 
"the heir of the promise." Then he turns from this 
wider offspring to the narrower, the Jewish, and prom- 
ises to this branch a special covenant, and the Holy 
Land. The transition from the wider prospect to the 
narrower is made by a transition from plural nouns to 
singular nouns. Immediately before, he had spoken 
of "nations." Had he continued to speak of them, or 
had he said "sons," in the plural, he would have re- 
ferred to all the offspring of the patriarch before men- 
tioned ; but by using the singular, " seed," he limits 
attention to the descendants of Isaac, in the line of 
Israel. It is on this turn of language that the apostle 
bases his argument ; it leads to the thought, not of 
various kinds of peoples, but of unity, of one. The 
rest is typical ; the natural Israel representing the 
spiritual, and the earthly Canaan, "the inheritance of 
the saints." The passage itself bears marks of this 
typical character, as Gosman 1 has said : " The ' ever- 
lasting covenant ' and < everlasting possession ' show 
that the covenant and promised inheritance included 
the spiritual seed and the heavenly Canaan." 

Those who insist with a certain joy that the apostle 
means in this place only Christ, the person, and not 

1 In Lange's " Genesis." 
X 



266 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Christ, the Head of the Church, and hence that he has 
made a mistake in his interpretation of the word 
"seed" as employed in the promise which he quotes, 
should reflect that he explains himself in the closing 
verse of the chapter : " If ye are Christ's then are ye 
Abraham's seed." It cannot be supposed that the 
apostle would strongly insist upon a narrow interpreta- 
tion of the word seed, and try to show that it means only 
Christ as an individual, and then forget himself immedi- 
ately and give it another significance. The two verses 
state the same thing ; and the more obscure is to be 
explained in the light of the later and clearer expres- 
sion. 

I am much indebted to Prof. S. Burnham, d. d., of 
Colgate University, for the following view of the pas- 
sage, which is a modification of that which I have just 
presented, or perhaps I should say, a clearer statement 
of it. 

The objection made to the use of the quotation 
by the apostle is that the word seeds, in the plural, 
both in the Hebrew and Greek, means different kinds 
of seed, and not grains of the same kind of seed. 
This fact, which is used to criticise the apostle, Prof. 
Burnham uses to explain and justify his argument. 
The plural means different kinds of seeds. The singu- 
lar, therefore, must mean a kind of seed, and not a 
single grain : 

The singular never denotes, either in Hebrew or Greek, a 
single seed. It is always and everywhere a collective noun. It 
therefore necessarily means a kind of seed in every instance, 
for all the seed which comes from one common source, and can 
therefore be denoted by a collective noun, can only be a kind of 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 267 

seed. Again, because a collective noun, the word is rarely 
used in the plural. We have it, however, in 1 Sam. 8 : 1 5 in 
the plural, where the meaning must be kinds of seed, and the 
singular must therefore necessarily mean a kind of seed. 

Having fixed in our minds the definition of the 
Hebrew and Greek plural as different kinds of seed, 
and of the singular as one kind of seed, let us con- 
sider how the readers of the epistle would understand 
the argument. The Galatians already believed that 
Christ was the true seed of Abraham, in whom the 
great blessings promised to the patriarch must come 
to the world. But the Jewish teachers from Jerusalem 
had been seeking to bring the Gentile converts to 
believe that they must become a part of the national 
descendants of Abraham in addition, in order to have 
part in the blessings promised to the father of the 
faithful. Now, says the apostle, this cannot be true, 
for the blessings promised were to come, not to two 
kinds of seed, or to many kinds of seed, but only to 
one kind. If the believers in Christ are, as you admit, 
the seed of Abraham according to faith, and blessings 
are to come to them because they are in Christ, then 
nothing more is necessary on their part to secure this 
blessing, for they are already a seed of Abraham, and 
are indeed, since you hold that one must be in Christ 
to receive the blessings promised to Abraham, the seed 
of Abraham. Now, unless you are prepared to reject 
Christ altogether as the source of the blessings prom- 
ised to Abraham, you cannot think it necessary to 
enter into the national seed of Abraham, for the prom- 
ises were made to one kind of seed, and not to two or 
more kinds. You cannot therefore hold to the neces- 



268 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

sity of belonging to both kinds of seeds at once. You 
must either give up Christianity, and hold that a spirit- 
ual relationship to Christ is not essential, or you must 
accept faith in Christ as the only condition of the 
blessings of God, for the line of the blessings is a 
single, and not a double line. 

Godet 1 expresses a similar view of the passage : 

Here St. Paul draws attention to the fact that the promise 
made to Abraham referred to one seed, not to many. Many 
interpreters have imagined that Paul means to point here to 
Christ himself as the one seed, in opposition to the multitude of 
individuals composing the Israelitish nation, as though Paul was 
ignorant of the collective sense of the Hebrew term which signi- 
fies posterity. But it is enough to read Rom. 4 : 11, 12, 16 ; 
and 9 : 6-8, in order to be convinced that Paul knows and ap- 
plies the collective sense of the term used both in Hebrew and 
Greek. The opposition which he brings out in the verses before 
us is not between the Christ as an individual and the multitudes 
of the Jewish people, but between the spiritual seed of faith, 
which alone is heir to the promises, and other lines of Abra- 
ham's descendants, of an altogether different character, espe- 
cially that to which his adversaries referred, the seed of Abraham 
according to the flesh, that is, the Jewish people as such. God, 
in making his promise to Abraham, had not contemplated for a 
moment two seeds different, but both equally legitimate, the one 
by faith, the other by the flesh, two hostile families of justified 
and saved ones. He had ever contemplated but one seed, the 
characteristic of which is the ever fresh reproduction of the faith 
of Abraham, and which is all virtually contained in Christ, who 
is the Head of which it is the body (3 : 15-18). This interpre- 
tation is brought out very clearly in Rom. 9 : 6-8. 

Let us read the argument of the apostle in the light 
of this explanation : " Now to Abraham were the 

1 " Studies on the Epistles," p. 46. • 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 269 

promises spoken, and to his kind of seed. He saith 
not, and to various kinds of seed, as of many ; but as 
of one, and to thy kind of seed, which is Christ." If 
the readers of the epistle understood the word " seed " 
in this manner, they would necessarily regard Christ 
in the passage as the seed of Abraham in the sense 
that he is the head and representative of his people. 
They would not think so much of Christ the person, 
as of Christ "the kind of seed" contemplated in the 
promise. The "kind of seed" is not that of ordinary 
generation ; but it is the " Christ-kind," the spiritual, 
the offspring of faith, such as the Galatian Christians 
already were. 

XXII. We have in Heb. 6 : 13-19 a quotation of 
Gen. 22 : 16, 17, which casts light on the preceding 
discussion. 

"When God made promise to Abraham, since he 
could swear by none greater, he sware by himself, say- 
ing, Surely blessing I will bless thee, and multiplying 
I will multiply thee. And thus, having patiently 
endured, he obtained the promise. For men swear by 
the greater ; and in every dispute of theirs the oath is 
final for confirmation. Wherein God, being minded to 
show more abundantly unto the heirs of the promise 
the immutability of his counsel, interposed with an 
oath ; that by two immutable things, in which it is 
impossible for God to lie, we may have a strong encour- 
agement who have fled for refuge to lay hold of the 
hope set before us." 

The quotation is made somewhat freely, for it was 
one of the commonplaces of Jewish teaching, and 
would be familiar to those for whom the epistle was 



270 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

written. A reference to the original passage will show 
that the memory of the reader was appealed to. 
There, Jehovah speaks in the form of an oath, saying, 
" By myself have I sworn," a phrase omitted in the 
epistle, though the argument is based upon it, because 
it was familiar to the readers. Another omission is 
made : God said, " I will multiply thy seed." The 
writer quotes him as saying, " I will multiply thee." 
This is probably for the sake of brevity, as is held by 
Delitzsch ; and indeed the two expressions convey the 
same essential idea. But the writer proceeds to apply 
the quotation on the assumption that " we who have 
fled for refuge," we Christians, are the true " seed " 
promised to Abraham, and hence the true " inheritors 
of the promise " confirmed by an oath. The passage 
quoted is similar to those referred to by the Apostle 
Paul in the preceding case, and the view of the true 
" seed of Abraham " is the same which the Apostle 
Paul expresses there. The oath to " multiply Abra- 
ham," is truly and finally fulfilled, not in his natural 
posterity, but in those who have his faith, his charac- 
ter, the lineaments of his spiritual being. 

XXIII. Among the quotations made, according to 
Kuenen, with reference to the sound of the words 
rather than the meaning, is that of Ps. 102 : 25-27 
in Heb. 1 : 10-12, beginning with the lines: 

Thou, Lord, in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the 

earth, 
And the heavens are the works of thy hand. 

Kuenen writes : 

In this case, it is difficult even to say what has led the writer 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 27 1 

to this interpretation. May it have been the word "Lord" at 
the beginning of the citation, a word which had gradually 
become among Christians the regular title of Jesus ? But the 
word is not in the Hebrew ; it is found only in the Septuagint, 
from which the quotation is made. 

There is no doubt that the psalm was addressed to 
Jehovah, and not to Jesus as distinct from Jehovah. 
But its application to the Messiah was induced by no 
such puerile and shallow occasion as the sound of the 
word " Lord " in the Septuagint. A glance at the 
psalm itself will show why it is thus applied ; for 
it is distinctively Messianic in those parts which re- 
fer to the future action of God in saving men. In 
the first eleven verses the writer depicts his own con- 
dition as pitiable in the extreme. From the twelfth 
verse to the end he assumes a more hopeful tone, and 
at the same time shows that his sufferings are those of 
his people at large, for whom he speaks as their repre- 
sentative. The psalm was probably written, therefore, 
during the Babylonian captivity, or soon after it, and 
the predictions of future deliverance refer primarily to 
the return of the nation from exile or the escape from 
the distresses immediately succeeding it. But the 
view of the prophet sweeps far beyond this period, and 
his expressions depict a future more glorious than the 
restoration of the tribes to their own land, or than the 
highest prosperity which they attained afterward. 
" The nations," the Gentiles, are to " fear the name of 
Jehovah, and the kings of the earth his glory." " The 
peoples," the Gentiles again, are to " be gathered 
together, and the kingdoms to serve Jehovah." Even 
after the heavens and the earth have passed away, the 



272 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

children of God " shall continue, and their seed shall 
be established." The psalm, thus, is typical, looking 
to the return of national prosperity, and making this 
the foreshadowing of the kingdom of the Messiah, in 
its universal extent and its eternal duration. Jehovah 
should accomplish all this, the Jehovah who laid the 
foundation of the earth, who formed the heavens with 
his hands, who shall remove all these his works, and 
who shall endure forever after they are destroyed. 
The psalmist looked forward to what Jehovah would 
do ; the writer to the Hebrews back to what he had 
done ; the one beheld Jehovah, the other Christ ; they 
are therefore essentially one and the same being, 
according to the uniform teaching of the New Testa- 
ment. The quotation is quite legitimate, based as it is 
upon the typical character of the psalm, which no one 
would fail to recognize were it a German or a Greek 
poem, and on the Christian revelation of the deity of 
the Son of God. 

XXIV. The incredible eagerness of Kuenen to 
fasten blame upon the writers of the New Testament 
is illustrated in his criticism of the quotation of Ps. 
40 : 7, 8 in Heb. 10:7. The psalmist wrote : 

Then said I, Lo, I am come ; 

In the roll of the book it is written of me : 

I delight to do thy will, O my God. 

The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews quotes as 
follows : 

Then said I, Lo, I am come 

(In the roll of the book it is written of me) 

To do thy will, O God. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 273 

The alteration complained of is the omission of the 
words " I delight " in the eighth verse. Kuenen holds 
that it was made for the purpose of showing a distinct 
and strong contrast between the " sacrifice and offer- 
ing " just mentioned and the coming of the Messiah to 
take their place by doing the divine will. " In the poem 
itself," he writes, "the antithesis is not so absolute." 
But the antithesis in the psalm, taken as a whole, is as 
absolute as language can make it. The psalmist de- 
clares that God has no delight in sacrifice and offering 
as such, nor has he required burnt-offering and sin- 
offering as such. Obedience to these prescriptions of 
the law is valuable only as the person is offered to God 
a living sacrifice. Perceiving this, he cries : " I give my- 
self, instead of these ; and I give myself gladly ; for 
I delight to do thy will." The substitution of glad 
spiritual service for the mere outer rites and ceremonies 
of the Mosaic religion is thus complete. All critics, of 
all schools, recognize this contrast ; and even Kuenen, 
were he commenting on the psalm, would say that it 
is the center and heart of the entire composition. 
But while the antithesis in the psalm as a whole is 
as absolute as language can make it, perhaps it is 
not perfectly clear in the brief sentences quoted ; 
and hence the slight change in the form of the eighth 
verse, to bring out the real meaning of the writer — 
a method of quoting that is illustrated in our fourth 
chapter. 

The passage was regarded by the Jews as Messianic. 
Its application to Christ is based upon the typical rela- 
tion of the writer to him, and on the special conform- 
ing of the language to the history, the purpose, and the 



274 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

effect of his mission to the world. Alexander has 
well said : 

David, or any other individual believer under the old econ- 
omy, was bound to bring himself as an oblation, in completion 
or in lieu of his external gifts ; but such self-devotion was pecu- 
liarly important upon Christ's part, as the real sacrifice, of which 
those rites were only figures. The failure of any indvidual to 
render this essential offering ensured his own destruction. But 
if Christ had failed to do the same, all his followers must have 
perished. It is not, therefore, an accommodation of the pas- 
sage to a subject altogether different, but an exposition of it in 
its highest application, that is given in Heb. 10 : 5-10. 

XXV. I shall consider now the prophecy of Christ 
in Deut. 18 : 15-19 : 

" Jehovah, thy God, will raise up unto thee a prophet 
from the midst of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me ; 
unto him ye shall hearken ; according to all that thou 
desiredst of Jehovah thy God in Horeb in the day of 
the assembly, saying, Let me not hear again the voice 
of Jehovah my God, neither let me see this great fire 
any more, that I die not. And Jehovah said unto me, 
They have well said that which they have spoken. I 
will raise them up a prophet from among their brethren, 
like unto thee ; and I will put my words in his mouth, 
and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command 
him. And it shall come to pass, that whosoever will not 
hearken unto my words which he shall speak in my 
name, I will require it of him." 

In the next verse Moses condemns false prophets, and 
in the two following verses lays down a method of dis- 
tinguishing true prophets from pretenders. His prom- 
ise inverses 15-19 is of "a prophet," in the singular, 
and hence many critics regard it as a direct prediction 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 275 

of Christ ; but his warnings and his instructions in 
the subsequent verses seem to contemplate an order 
of prophets, and hence some hold that the words 
"a prophet like unto me," are " used collectively, 
the reference being to the whole line of prophets." 
This division of the critics is determined largely by 
their theological sympathies, the more conservative 
in general taking the first view, and the more radical 
the second. I follow the former. It seems to me 
natural that Moses should look at the great Prophet, 
the Head of the order, and then at others who might 
claim to participate partially in the spirit of prophecy ; 
but not natural that he should say "a prophet like 
unto me," when he meant the whole number of his 
successors. The controversy, however, is of little im- 
portance. Let us grant that Moses refers to the entire 
order of prophets. They are then a type of the su- 
preme Prophet, who has brought us the complete 
expression of the divine nature and the divine will. 
The language of Moses is singular, and not plural, be- 
cause the Holy Spirit would direct us thus to the One 
Prophet of whom the others are "but broken lights." 

The prophecy is quoted by Peter at Acts 3 : 22, 23, 
and by Stephen at Acts 7 : 37. By neither is it de- 
clared either direct or typical. Indeed, there is no in- 
stance in the whole New Testament in which a writer 
distinguishes any prophecy as belonging to one of these 
classes or to the other. The direct prophecies and the 
indirect are alike quoted simply as prophecies. Hence 
Toy is wrong when, after deciding that the passage 
refers only indirectly to Christ, he adds that in the 
Acts it "is regarded as a direct historical prediction." 



276 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

These distinctions of prophecies are useful, but they 
are chiefly modern, and they are entirely foreign to the 
Holy Scriptures. 

XXVI. We now approach a quotation which has 
occasioned perhaps more debate than any other. It is 
Isa. 7 : 14 as reproduced in Matt. 1 : 22, 23 : 

Now all this is come to pass, that it might be fulfilled which 
was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, saying, 

Behold, the virgin shall be with child, and shall bring forth 

a son, 
And they shall call his name Immanuel ; 

which is, being interpreted, God with us. 

There are four views of this passage which seem to 
me worthy of consideration. The first is held by such 
scholars as Ewald and Cheyne. It is that Isaiah ex- 
pected the Messiah to come immediately. Hence "the 
maiden " is his mother, and the passage is a direct 
Messianic prophecy. Those who hold that the writers 
of the New Testament were mistaken as to the time 
of our Lord's second advent will have no difficulty in 
holding that the writers of the Old Testament were 
mistaken as to the time of his first advent. I will add 
that both suppositions appear to me utterly without 
warrant. 

The second view is applied to many other passages 
as well ; it is that which Dr. Leonard Woods has stated 
and defended with much ability. 1 

The phrase "that it might be fulfilled," 2 and other phrases of 
the like kind, are indeed used, and very properly, to introduce a 
real prediction which is accomplished, but not for this purpose 

1 In his " Lecture on the Quotations," Andover, 1 824. 

2 Iva nKripuBrj. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 277 

only. They are often used, and with equal propriety, I say not 
in the way of accommodation, because that word, unhappily, 
has been employed by certain writers to express a doctrine 
which I think utterly inconsistent with the character of Christ 
and his apostles, but to denote a mere comparison of similar 
events, to signify that the thing spoken of answers to the words 
of the prophet, or that his words may be justly applied to it ; 
and so they may relate to what was said by an inspired writer in 
describing a character which formerly appeared, or in relating 
an event which formerly took place, as well as to a real predic- 
tion. Accordingly, we might take a passage where it is said 
that such a thing was done ' ' that it might be fulfilled which 
was spoken by the prophet," or that what was spoken by the 
prophet "was fulfilled," and might, in many instances, express 
the same thing by such phrases as these : The declaration of the 
prophet had an accomplishment in what took place ; or, his 
words may be aptly applied to it ; or, they very properly ex- 
press it ; or, his observation is true in reference to the present 
case ; or, this thing is like what the prophet describes. Accord- 
ing to this view the passages referred to are cited in the way of 
illustration. And a thorough attention to the subject will con- 
vince you that this mode of illustrating and impressing the truth 
was very common at the time the New Testament was written, 
and indeed is common at the present time, and is obviously 
proper at all times. 

This opinion Dr. Woods seeks to prove by various 
considerations, but chiefly by an appeal to several pas- 
sages of the New Testament where, he affirms, the 
phrases in question cannot be understood in any other 
manner, and also by an appeal to the lexicons. Some 
of the passages from the Old Testament introduced 
into the New with these phrases, he maintains, are not 
in their nature prophecies, nor are they quoted as 
prophecies. Some of the older lexicons, as Schleusner, 
sustain his view ; but the later reject it. All agree 

Y 



278 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

that the words in secular Greek might have the force 
assigned to them by Dr. Woods ; but it is denied that 
this sense ever belongs to them in the New Testa- 
ment. 1 There are, however, certain fashions in lexi- 
cography, as in every other study ; and perhaps the 
discussion is not yet at an end. 

This interpretation of the words " That it might be 
fulfilled," is rejected by Tholuck, who, however, pre- 
serves all that is valuable in it, while assigning a full 
and natural sense to the phrase in question : 

It may be shown convincingly, that neither the Redeemer 
himself nor his apostles have proceeded on so rigid an idea of 
prophecy as has been attributed to them by a far too material 
supranaturalism. Only a few persons still retain the idea of 
prophecy in its ancient rigidness. Even in popular works, such 
as Otto von Gerlach's Commentary on Matt. 2 : 16, we find the 
following anti-material description of prophecy: "The word 
' fulfill,' in this and other passages, is not to be understood as if 
the words quoted contained a prophecy which was verified 
merely in the instance adduced. Rather, we should say every 
divine expression contains a meaning which is fulfilled when 
that takes place which it expresses, either on a smaller or larger 
scale. Hence all the words of God, which collectively are in a 
certain sense prophecies, as long as the kingdom of God had 
not yet appeared, always become gradually fulfilled, and with 
increasing brightness, because the primary fulfillment is typical 
of a subsequent one." This more spiritual idea of prophecy 
shows itself also in this, that one and the same word of promise 
is applied freely to manifold and different phenomena, which 
yet can be ranged under one idea. The aged Simeon finds the 
prophecy of Isaiah, " A light to lighten the Gentiles " (Luke 2 : 

1 The examples from secular Greek are given at some length by Palfrey, 
in his " Relation between Judaism and Christianity," p. 28. See the 
word Iva in Sophocles and in Thayer. Toy, in his " Quotations," admits 
that the older opinion may possibly be correct. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 279 

32), fulfilled in the child Jesus ; but Paul, knowing that the 
apostles were the conveyers of that light, finds its fulfillment in 
the apostles (Acts 13 : 47). When Peter, in Acts 2 : 17-21, 
explains the language of Joel as fulfilled in the effusion of the 
Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost, it certainly was not his 
meaning that the prophecy he quoted was fulfilled in that event 
only ; indeed, what he says of natural phenomena (ver. 19, 20), 
was not at that time literally fulfilled. No doubt Peter employed 
the words of Joel in the same manner in which he quoted the 
words of Christ, "Ye shall be baptized in the Holy Spirit," at 
the effusion of the Spirit on Cornelius (Acts 11 : 16). He was 
well aware that this promise of the Redeemer related primarily 
to the apostles ; but on another occasion, which harmonized 
in idea with the effusion of the Spirit on the apostles, this word 
of the Lord's was realized afresh. So also those expressions of 
Isaiah respecting the hardening of the hearts of the people. 
The same passage is four times quoted in the New Testament 
on different occasions (Matt. 13 : 14 ; John 12 : 40 ; Acts 28 : 
26 ; and Rom. 11 : 8) ; and even to the inhabitants of the 
island of Thule the apostles would have had no hesitation in 
saying, "In you is fulfilled the word spoken by the prophet," 
in case the state of their dispositions corresponded with that to 
which Isaiah refers. In this manner we would explain 1 Peter 
1 : 25, where the prophetic expression, " The word of the Lord 
abideth forever," is boldly explained as referring to the gospel, 
in the words, "And this is the word of good tidings which was 
preached unto you." The freedom with which, in these in- 
stances, reference is made to the expressions of the Old Testa- 
ment, is equally applied to the form of the citations, when 
Christ in John 6 : 45, in order to prove that the Father inwardly 
teaches men, adduces the prophetic saying, "They shall all be 
taught of God," with the general expression, "It is written in 
the prophets." We find a similar instance in John 7 : 38 : " He 
that believeth on me, as the Scripture hath said, out of his belly 
shall flow rivers of living water." All these examples fall 
within the limits of typical prophecy, inasmuch as within the 
original fact to which the Old Testament language relates, those 
other cases to which it is applied are comprehended and typified. 



28o QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Exactly in the same manner John uses the language of the 
Redeemer himself, when, in chapter 18 : 9, he refers with an 
"in an order that it might be fulfilled," to chapter 17 : 12, 
where yet the discourse was only of spiritual perdition. 1 But 
did John mean that the Saviour, in that saying, had in view the 
fact to which he himself applied it, or did he only mean to say 
that the Saviour' s words in this respect also might be considered 
as verified ? 

Dr. Woods holds that the phrase " that it might be 
fulfilled" is often used to signify no more than that 
"the things spoken of answer to the words of the 
prophet or that his words may be justly applied to 
them." Tholuck gives it greater force, and sees in it 
a real recognition of divine intention, while still he 
maintains that it introduces the words of the prophecy 
as applicable to all events in the history of the king- 
dom of God which so resemble the original event that 
it may be regarded as typifying them or as including 
them in its conception, its idea, or its causes. The 
interpretation of Tholuck is to be preferred, because 
it gives us all the elasticity of prophetic language 
sought by Dr. Woods, while it sees in the passages 
quoted real prediction, and not mere illustration. 

A third view is well expressed by Toy, and, though 
insufficient in itself, it may be united to the fourth 
with advantage : " The spiritual significance of the 
name, the spiritual presence of God with men, was 
realized more and more perfectly as Israel grew in 

1 John 17 : 12: "While I was with them I kept them in thy name 
which thou hast given me ; and I guarded them, and not one of them 
perished, but the son of perdition." John 18 : 9: "That the word 
might be fulfilled which he spake, Of those whom thou hast given me I 
lost not one." 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 28l 

knowledge, and most perfectly in Jesus of Nazareth, 
who most truly embodied the divine, and became the 
Redeemer of men." Hence the Immanuel of the 
prophecy would be, though not exactly a type of Christ, 
an early embodiment of a truth to become revealed in 
him as its fullest form. 

A fourth view of the quotation is the one at present 
held by the great majority of evangelical scholars. 

About the year b. c. 734, Ahaz, the king of Judah, 
learned that the two powers nearest him on the north 
and northeast, Israel under Pekah, and Syria under 
Rezin, intended to invade Judah, besiege Jerusalem, 
and set up in his place another king, who would do 
their will. He was terrified at the prospect. God, 
however, commanded Isaiah to assure him that the pur- 
pose of the confederates should fail, and to offer him a 
miraculous sign that the prediction of immunity from 
invasion should be fulfilled. Ahaz refused to ask for a 
sign, whereupon the prophet said : " Jehovah himself 
shall give you a sign." The sign was to be this. A 
young woman designated as " the maiden," perhaps 
some person well known to the king, as for instance 
his daughter, should conceive and bear a son, whose 
name should be called " Immanuel," that is, " God is 
with us." The name was one of hope and confidence 
that God had not deserted his people, but was with 
them to save them from the threatened hostilities of 
their rivals, and it was thus like the names given by 
Isaiah to his own sons (7:3; 8 : 1-4, 18), the one 
Shear-jashub, " A remnant shall return," as a testi- 
mony that Judah should be carried away captive, but 
not annihilated, and the other Maher-shalal-hash-baz, 



282 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

" The spoil speedeth, the prey hasteth," as a testimony 
that Assyria should soon lay waste both Damascus and 
Samaria. Before Immanuel should be old enough to 
"know to refuse the evil and choose the good," the 
hostile lands should be overrun by their foes, and 
Jerusalem delivered from their power. The young 
woman was probably some influential and well-known 
person about to be married, since she is called definitely 
"the maiden" ; and the child seems to have been born 
and named in accordance with the prophetic word, and 
to have occupied a princely position, for in Isa. 8 : 8, 
the land of Judah is termed "thy land, O Immanuel." 
Thus all the events here foreseen by the prophet lay in 
the immediate future. The prophecy referred to the 
birth of Christ, first, in a typical manner, " the maiden " 
foreshowing Mary, and the princely Immanuel, Jesus. 
It referred to the birth of Christ, secondly, in the 
peculiar formation of its language under the guidance 
of the Holy Spirit, so that the terms employed were 
specially adapted to the more distant event as well as 
to the nearer. 

When we read in the gospel : " All this is come to 
pass that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the 
Lord through the prophet," we must not force the 
words into some unnatural sense, and say that there 
was no real prediction of the Incarnation in the Old 
Testament passage, but only such a resemblance to the 
later events as reminded the evangelist of it. There 
is little ground for question that he found in the words 
quoted a genuine prophecy of the birth of the Son of 
God from a virgin mother, or that he regarded this 
event as ordained by God in order that the declaration 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 283 

of the prophet might be accomplished. But, while we 
must not belittle the statement of the evangelist, 
neither must we exaggerate it, as, for instance, by 
making him teach that the miraculous birth of our 
Lord had no other purpose than the fulfillment of the 
prediction, or that the prediction had no other purpose 
than to point to the birth of our Lord of a virgin 
mother, and no other fulfillment ; for in fact he says 
none of these things. 

Nor must we make him say that Isaiah understood 
his words to be a prediction of the Messiah when he 
uttered them. In some cases the prophet was utterly 
unconscious of any higher reference of his words than 
that which lay nearest to him, though the Holy Spirit 
so shaped them that they should foretell far greater 
events, and be understood by his people in due time, 
for their admiration, for their confirmation in the faith, 
and for their comfort. We have a special instance of 
this sort in John 1 1 : 49-52 :. 

" A certain one of them, Caiaphas, being high priest 
that year, said unto them, Ye know nothing at all, nor 
do ye take account that it is expedient for you that one 
man should die for the people, and that the whole na- 
tion perish not. Now this he said not of himself : but 
being high priest that year, he prophesied that Jesus 
should die for the nation ; and not for the nation only, 
but that he might also gather together into one the 
children of God that are scattered abroad." 

Caiaphas meant one thing, but the Holy Spirit 
so guided his mind that his words became a pre- 
diction of another. A similar instance is that of 
Balaam (Num. 22, 23, and 24). Many of the pre- 



284 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

dictions of the Old Testament must be placed in 
this class. It ought not to seem strange that he who 
controls all events, even the least, should care for the 
language of his prophets, and give it such a form as is 
most suitable to his purposes. It is to this providence 
of God in the utterance of Isaiah that Matthew alludes, 
when he uses the peculiar phraseology, " Spoken by 
the Lord through the prophet." His interpretation of 
the prophecy thus declares what was in the mind of 
the Lord when it was uttered and not what was in the 
mind of the prophet. Both the Spirit of inspiration 
and the prophet thought of the immediate application 
of the words ; but it may be that only the Spirit of 
inspiration thought of the later and grander application. 
Thus Broadus says : 

It is often unnecessary, and sometimes impossible, to sup- 
pose that the prophet himself had in mind that which the New 
Testament writer calls a fulfillment of his prediction. 

Many prophecies received, fulfillments which the prophet 
does not appear to have at all contemplated. But as God's 
providence often brought about the fulfillment, though the 
human actors were heedless or even ignorant of the predictions 
they fulfilled, so God's Spirit often contemplated fulfillments of 
which the prophet had no conception, but which the evangelist 
makes known. And it is of a piece with the general develop- 
ment of revelation, that the later inspiration should explain the 
records of the earlier inspiration, and that only after the events 
have occurred should the early predictions of them be under- 
stood. 

The chief discussion occasioned by this view turns 
upon the word translated "virgin." It is said that the 
Greek word employed here means a virgin in the strictest 
sense ; that the Hebrew word does not mean a virgin 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 285 

in this sense, but a marriageable young woman, whether 
strictly a virgin or not, and indeed whether married or 
not ; that there is another Hebrew word which the 
prophet would have used had he intended to say " the 
virgin " ; and that hence his prediction cannot properly 
be interpreted as in any way a prediction of the birth 
of Jesus from a virgin mother. 

It should be noticed, however, first of all, that the 
Greek word l here employed by the evangelist does not 
always mean a virgin in the strictest sense, but, as 
Meyer points out, often designates a girl, a maiden, in 
the most general way, and sometimes a young married 
woman. No doubt it is used by Matthew in this place 
in the strict sense ; but by observing its wide range of 
meanings, we are better prepared to see how the 
Hebrew word here used by Isaiah may also have a 
wide range of meanings. 

Let us next examine the statement that the word 
here used in the Hebrew does not mean a virgin, but a 
marriageable, or even a married young woman. Toy 
is one of those who hold this opinion, and, like others 
of his school of criticism, he appeals for his chief proof 
to the Aramaic and Arabic languages. But this is no 
evidence, as any one may see by taking a list of com- 
mon English words, which exist also in German and 
French, and observing what different and sometimes 
discrepant shades of meaning the same word has in 
the three languages. Toy admits that the instances in 
which the word occurs in the Old Testament do not 
prove that the person designated by it is in any case 
already married. Gesenius, who gives the word this 

1 TrapfleVos. 



286 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

wide meaning, appeals to the passage before us as the 
only instance in which it refers to a married woman ; 
but this surely is to beg the very question at issue. It 
is probably fair to say that the word means in general 
a marriageable but unmarried young woman, a girl, a 
maiden, but sometimes passes over into the stricter 
meaning of spotless virginity, exactly like our word 
"maid," or the German "Jungfrau." It seems to 
have this stricter meaning in Solomon's Song 6:8: 

There are threescore -queens, and fourscore concubines, 
And virgins without number. 

Here there are three classes in the harem of Solomon 
— queens, concubines, and maidens. What was the 
distinction between the concubines and maidens, unless 
it was that the former stood in the position of wives 
to the king, while the latter were supposed to be still 
intact ? 

The passage from the idea of a marriageable young 
woman to that of strict virginity would be especially 
easy for a Hebrew, whose law required that every bride 
should be found a virgin, on pain of death (Deut. 22 : 
20, 21). Thus Hitzig says, commenting on the proph- 
ecy : " The sense of ' unmarried woman ' is demanded ; 
the unstained purity is understood in this connection 
as a matter of course." Indeed, it may be said that a 
marriageable young woman would necessarily be 
thought of by the Hebrews as a virgin, whatever word 
might be employed to designate her, since no young 
woman not a virgin was marriageable under their law. 
The prophet, in saying that a " maiden should conceive 
and bear a son," would think of her as a virgin, for it 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 287 

was far from his purpose to accuse her and subject her 
to death. Hence Matthew is true to the prophetic 
thought when he uses the word " virgin " in the quo- 
tation. We are not to suppose, however, that he lays 
great stress upon this special word ; he found it in the 
Septuagint, and retained it ; but if he had rejected it 
for " maiden," or "young unmarried woman," his 
meaning would have been precisely the same, and we 
should have understood the strict virginity of Mary, 
from the fact which he states, that Joseph had not yet 
taken her to himself in reality, though he had complied 
with the forms of marriage. 

We must examine, next, the statement that there is 
another Hebrew word which the prophet would have 
employed to express the idea of strict virginity. The 
statement is true in part ; there is another word which 
is employed when the thought of virginity is to receive 
special emphasis (Gen. 24 : 16 ; Exod. 22 : 16, 17 ; Lev. 
21 : 14; Deut. 22 : 19, 23, 28 ; etc.). There is no reason 
to suppose, however, that either the prophet, or Mat- 
thew in quoting him, needed a word which would give 
special emphasis to the idea of virginity. And unfor- 
tunately for the adverse argument which I am consid- 
ering, this word also passes through a wide range of 
meanings, and is used for a young woman where there 
is no assertion of strict virginity (Amos 8:13), and 
even for a young widow (Joel 1:8). Broadus well 
says of this last passage, that had such an instance 
been found for the word employed by Isaiah in the 
prophecy before us, " it would have been claimed as 
triumphant proof that ' virgin ' is not here a proper 
translation." 



288 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

If difficulty is found with the statement that language 
specially intended by the prophet to refer to one series 
of events was so shaped by the Spirit of inspiration as 
to predict also another, let the reader consider atten- 
tively the instances of this sort already referred to in 
John ii : 49-52 and Num. 22, 23, and 24. The lan- 
guage of Isaiah seems to have received special super- 
vision from the Holy Spirit ; for, though " the maiden " 
to whom the prophet immediately refers would of 
course be married before bringing forth her son, noth- 
ing is said of this, and thus the words become peculiarly 
appropriate to the birth of Jesus from a virgin mother. 
Let the reader consider also what has already been said 
in this chapter on double reference in general litera- 
ture. 

Difficulty is found again with the statement that 
" the maiden " of Isaiah was a type of Mary, and her son 
Immanuel a type of Jesus. But this difficulty will 
vanish if we suppose, as we have already had reason to 
do, that "the maiden" was a princess, and hence a 
daughter of David, and perhaps a progenitor of Mary 
and of Jesus, both of whom were " of the seed of David 
according to the flesh." l The son, in this case, would 
be a prince, and the expression, " thy land, O Im- 
manuel," would be natural ; and this prince of the 
house of David, bearing a name so significant of the 
presence of Jehovah with his people, would be a vivid 
type of him in whose person God was to dwell among 
men. 

That the passage was intended by the Holy Spirit to 
refer to the birth of Christ, as well as to the events 
1 2 Tim. 2 .- s. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 289 

immediately predicted by the prophet, is felt by almost 
all Christians who read it. 1. Why else should an un- 
married woman, a maiden, a virgin, be selected as the 
destined mother, instead of some woman already mar- 
ried ? The sign, so far as Ahaz was to be affected by 
it, would be exactly as vivid in the latter case as in the 
former. 2. Why else should the prophet be careful to 
predict the birth of a son ? Wliy not say, indefinitely, 
a child, a babe, or definitely, a daughter ? The sign, 
to Ahaz, would be quite as significant. 3. Why else 
should the relative poverty of this boy in his early 
life be pointed out in the statement that he should 
eat "butter and honey," the food of the less wealthy 
classes ? 4. Why else should the boy be spoken of in 
chap. 8 : 8 as the lord of Judah, in the words, "thy 
land, O Immanuel ? " It is evident that we have to do 
here with language carefully chosen to refer to events 
far apart in time, and with events the earlier of which 
are typical of the later. W r e may confidently adopt 
the words of Alexander : " There is no ground, gram- 
matical, historical, or logical, for doubt as to the main 
point, that the church in all ages has been right in re- 
garding this passage as a signal and explicit prediction 
of the miraculous conception and nativity of Jesus 
Christ." 

We have here, therefore, a typical prediction of the 
incarnation, strongly indicated as such by the overflow 
of its language from the contemporary to the more re- 
mote persons and events. 

XXVII. Similar overflow of language is found at 
Micah 5 : 1-5 as quoted at Matt. 2 : 6. The whole 
section of Micah in which these verses occur, relates to 

z 



290 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

the invasions of Palestine by the Assyrians under 
Sargon, near the beginning of the seventh century b. c. 
But just here the horizon of the prophet expands, and 
he foresees the birth of a king in Bethlehem, a descen- 
dant of David, a man " whose goings forth are from of 
old, from ancient days," who should "be great unto 
the ends of the earth," and who should "feed his flock 
in the strength of Jehovah, in the majesty of the name 
of Jehovah his God." This ruler should beat back the 
Assyrians, and "waste their land with the sword." 
The passage takes the color of the time in which it was 
written ; but the prophet rises for a moment above the 
circumstances immediately about him, and uses lan- 
guage which could be adequately fulfilled only in such 
a personage as our Lord, and in his spiritual victories 
over all the enemies of the people of God, of whom the 
Assyrians were vivid types. 

XXVIII. I shall consider next the quotation of 
Hosea 1 1 : 1 in Matt. 2:15. The extracts from Dr. 
Leonard Woods and from Tholuck, concerning the 
formula of quotation, "that it might be fulfilled," in 
my discussion of Matt. 1 : 22, 23, should be considered 
here. The reader should weigh again what I have said 
in the same discussion about the formation of prophetic 
language under the guidance of the Holy Spirit ; for 
the words of Hosea are as admirably adapted to the use 
to which the evangelist applies them as are those of 
Isa. 7 : 14. 

The quotation finds its best explanation, however, in 
the typical view of the Old Testament. It is called by 
Kuenen " an abandoned post." But it is abandoned 
only by critics of his own school, who see no typi- 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 291 

cal relationship between the old dispensation and the 
new ; while those who believe in such a typical rela- 
tionship find in this quotation only a vivid illustration 
of it. The evangelist tells us that the flight of Joseph 
and Mary with their child into Egypt, and the return 
to the holy land, took place " that it might be fulfilled 
which was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, 
saying, Out of Egypt did I call my son." The words 
as they stand in the Old Testament refer primarily to 
Israel, as is evident at a glance. The prophet may 
have found no other meaning in them ; and it should 
be observed that here again the evangelist ascribes 
their reference to Christ to ''the Lord," and not to the 
prophet ; they were " spoken by the Lord through the 
prophet." That Israel is regarded by the Spirit of in- 
spiration as a type of Christ is certain both from the 
New Testament and the Old ; and it is equally cer- 
tain that the typical relationship is traced in various 
minute details, as well as the broader outlines of the 
sacred history. The passage of Israel through the Red 
Sea is a type of the baptism which Christ instituted 
and observed (1 Cor. 10 : 1, 2). The Passover is a 
type of the Lord's sacrifice (1 Cor. 5 : 7), and of its 
memorial, the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. 5 : 8), as are also 
the manna and the water from the rock (John 6 : 
26-59; x ^ or - IO : 3~5> J 6, 17)- The forty years of 
wandering in the wilderness can scarcely be regarded 
otherwise than as a type of the forty days of tempta- 
tion in the desert. All the rites and ceremonies of the 
Mosaic ritual were " a shadow of the good things to 
come" (Heb. 10 : 1). Many of the great men of the 
Hebrew records were types of the Messiah, like Mel- 



292 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

chizedek (Heb. 7), and Moses (Deut. 18 : 15 ; Acts 3 : 
22 ; 7 : 37). The whole people of Israel, in so far as 
it suffered "for righteousness' sake," was a type of the 
suffering Saviour of men. This is presented most 
graphically in the prophecies of Isaiah, where "the 
servant of Jehovah" is sometimes Israel (41 : 8-13), 
while at other times he can be none else than the Mes- 
siah (42 : 1-9 ; 53 : 2-12). 

Since, then, the old dispensation is a type of the 
new, it should occasion no surprise that the descent 
of Israel into Egypt and the exodus should fore- 
shadow similar events in the life of the Redeemer 
of the world. But, it is said by Kuenen, the two 
series of events are not similar. " As regards Israel, 
Egypt was the land of servitude; as regards the child 
Jesus, it was a temporary refuge ; the calling out of 
Egypt is thus an entirely different thing with the 
evangelist from what it was with the prophet." This 
is an appeal to popular impressions, rather than to 
history. In fact, Egypt was as truly a refuge to the 
Israelites as to Christ (Gen. 43, 44, 45). It is probable 
that the larger part of their sojourn there was pros- 
perous, the oppression coming only when God would 
wean them from the riches of Goshen and take them to 
their own land. The return of Joseph and Mary with 
Jesus was similar to that of Israel, inasmuch as it was 
accomplished in obedience to the direct command of 
God (Matt. 2 : 19, 20). But the typology goes deeper 
than this, and reaches the firm rock of those eternal 
principles on which God bases his actions. This is 
well expressed by Dr. Leonard Woods : ! " The prin- 

1 In his " Lectures on the Quotations." 



DOUBLE' REFERENCE 293 

ciple of the divine government was in both cases the 
same. In bringing the children of Israel out of Egypt, 
the event intended by the prophet, God showed his 
kindness to his people, his care to protect and deliver 
them, his faithfulness in executing his promise. He 
showed the same kindness and care and faithfulness in 
respect to his holy child Jesus in the event described 
by the evangelist." 

XXIX. The quotation of Jer. 31:15 in Matt. 2:18 
is perhaps another instance of the typical element in 
Scripture : " Then was fulfilled that which was spoken 
through Jeremiah the prophet, saying : 

A voice was heard in Ramah, 

Weeping and great mourning, 

Rachel weeping for her children ; 

And she would not be comforted, because they are not." 

The original passage refers primarily to the conquest 
of the kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians. Many 
were slain, and many were carried away into slavery. 
The disaster had occurred long before the prophecies of 
Jeremiah were uttered ; and he depicts it here in order 
to comfort the captives, and to predict the joyful return 
of the nation to its own land. By a bold flight of the 
imagination he portrays Rachel, the wife of Jacob, as 
rising from her tomb and weeping so bitterly for the 
calamities of her children that the sound of her lamen- 
tation was heard in Ramah, a city not far distant. 

This view of the passage needs to be justified, for it 
is held by almost all commentators that the lamentation 
of Rachel is supposed by the prophet to be caused by 
the destruction of the kingdom of Judah, and its 



294 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

capital, Jerusalem, a disaster in which her descendants, 
the Benjamites, were involved. In accordance with 
this interpretation, the Ramah mentioned in the proph- 
ecy is placed in Benjamite territory. Such in sub- 
stance is the view of Mansel, Plumptre, Alford, Lange, 
Hitzig, Meyer, and Broadus. But it is erroneous, as 
an inspection of the prophecy itself will show. The 
prophecy consists of three divisions. In the first, Je- 
hovah addresses the Northern kingdom, calling it, as 
usual, sometimes Israel, and sometimes again Ephraim, 
since Ephraim was its leading tribe (ver. 1-22). In 
the second division he addresses the Southern kingdom, 
as usual calling it Judah, because Judah was its leading 
tribe (ver. 23-26.) In the third division he addresses 
both kingdoms, and calls them " the house of Israel, 
and the house of Judah " (ver. 27-40). These three 
divisions of the prophecy are as distinct as language 
can make them, and are based on the political divisions 
of the chosen people. The chapter is thus like an 
American State paper, addressed in the first part to the 
Northern States of our Union ; in the second to the 
Southern States ; and in the third to both as forming 
one people. 

The words quoted by Matthew are in the first part of 
the chapter, and are addressed to the Northern tribes, 
instead of Judah and Jerusalem. They predict the res- 
toration of Israel, the replanting of the mountains of 
Samaria, the prosperity of Ephraim. The verses quoted 
by Matthew refer to the Northern nation under the name 
of Ephraim, its leading tribe. Rachel laments for her 
children ; but Jehovah bids her " refrain from weeping," 
because her children are destined to "come again from 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 295 

the land of the enemy." He continues, " Surely I 
have heard Ephraim bemoaning himself " in penitence. 
We have only to bear in mind that the whole Northern 
nation is called Ephraim here, as so often elsewhere, to 
appreciate the appropriateness of the picture of Rachel 
weeping over its captivity ; for the patriarch Ephraim 
was her grandson ; and hence the whole people were 
regarded ideally as her descendants. We have only to 
bear in mind that the Northern kingdom of Ephraim 
was destroyed, and its people slain or carried away, 
more than a hundred and thirty years before the cap- 
tivity of the Jews, to see that the passage before us can 
have no reference whatever to the latter event. 

In general, however, the commentators have not ob- 
served ' this clear division of the chapter, and hence 
have referred the weeping of Rachel chiefly to the 
calamities of Benjamin in the overthrow of Judah, the 
Southern kingdom. Hence, also, of the five Ramahs 
mentioned in the Old Testament, they select the 
Ramah which lay within the territory of Benjamin, a 
few miles north of Jerusalem, and regard it as the place 
where the weeping was heard. The motive of Rachel 
is thus seriously belittled, as it is found chiefly in the 
sorrows of a petty tribe, instead of a mighty nation. 

The commentators on this passage have yet another 
reason for their choice of the Ramah just north of 
Jerusalem besides its situation in Benjamite territory. 
The reason is presented in the assertion that this 
Ramah was the place where all the captive Jews were 
assembled, some to be slain and others to be carried 
out of the country. The statement, however, is sus- 

1 Na^elsbach has noticed it. 



296 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

tained by no real evidence. The only semblance of 
proof adduced for it is found in Jer. 40 : 1 : " The word 
which came to Jeremiah from Jehovah, after that 
Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, had let him go 
from Ramah, when he had taken him, being bound in 
chains, among all the captives of Jerusalem and Judah, 
which were carried away captive into Babylon." The 
Ramah north of Jerusalem was thus probably the head- 
quarters of the "captain of the guard." As it was near 
the main road leading toward Babylon, it is not im- 
probable that many prisoners underwent some sort of 
examination there. But the text proves very little 
beyond this tentative inspection of some prisoners of 
war. It shows us that Jeremiah had been "taken 
bound in chains among all the captives of Jerusalem," 
that he had been carried to Ramah, whether with other 
captives or apart from them, and that he was " let go " 
after an interview with the Assyrian commander. 
More than a year before this the country of Judah had 
been overrun, and its inhabitants disposed of, and even 
a large part of the citizens of Jerusalem had yielded 
themselves to the invaders. All the captives seem to 
have been sent to Riblah, far north of this Ramah, 
where their ultimate fate was decided (2 Kings 25:18- 
2 1 ). The most terrible tragedies of the war were enacted 
at Riblah ; there the prince royal and the nobles were 
slaughtered, and the eyes of the king put out (Jer. 39 : 
1-7); there also the principal priests, five of the court 
favorites, and sixty other prominent Jews, were sen- 
tenced to death and executed (2 Kings 25:1 8-2 1 ). When 
Dr. R. Payne Smith, in the " Speaker's Commentary," 
tells us that all the captives were reviewed at Ramah, 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 297 

and "all such as were unequal to the journey would 
there be put to death," he is indulging in mere con- 
jecture. We have no account of such a general muster 
there ; nor do the Scriptures tell us that a single execu- 
tion took place there. The writer of the article on 
" Ramah " in Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible" adds 
to the persons slaughtered at this place those who were 
poor, forgetting the express statement of Scripture that 
the poor were left behind to cultivate the soil (2 Kings 
25 :i2). Thus it is not proved that the Ramah in- 
tended by the prophet was one where special cruelties 
were perpetrated, for we have no proof that any Ramah 
was the theatre of special cruelties. 

Not only is there no reason in favor of the Ramah 
immediately north of Jerusalem, but there is a special 
reason against it. The prophet seems to think of 
Rachel as rising from her tomb, and, without departing 
from it, as weeping so loudly that her voice was heard 
in Ramah, and was recognized there as a voice of bitter 
wailing and lamentation. Now the tomb of Rachel is 
well-known to this day, and is shown where the writer 
of Gen. 35 : 19, 20 places it; its distance from this 
Ramah is about nine miles, and Jerusalem lies between 
the two. The prophet, even in the boldest flight of his 
imagination would hardly represent her cry as penetrat- 
ing so far. 

Is there any Ramah of the Old Testament that will 
suit the requirements of this passage better ? Yes. 

(1) The home of Samuel was at a certain Ramah 
(1 Sam. 7 : 17), from which he went "in circuit to 
Bethel, and Gilgal, and Mizpeh," to judge the people. 

(2) It seems to have been at his home that Saul visited 



298 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

him (1 Sam. 9), for the servant of Saul said: "There 
is in this city a man of God," which he could not have 
done had the city not been known as the residence of 
the seer. Moreover, Samuel seems to have been in his 
own house when Saul was entertained by him. (3) The 
place where Samuel was when Saul visited him could 
not have been the Ramah north of Jerusalem, for that 
was in the territory of Benjamin. But God said to 
Samuel : " I will send thee a man out of the land of 
Benjamin"; and moreover Saul " passed through the 
land of the Benjamites " and came "to the land of 
Zuph," before reaching the Ramah where Samuel 
dwelt. (4) This Ramah was near the tomb of Rachel, 
for in letting Saul go, Samuel sketched his journey 
(1 Sam. 10 : 2-6), and mentioned " Rachel's sepulchre" 
first in the order of places where significant events 
were to occur during the day. We see at once how 
the prophet might picture the voice of Rachel as being 
heard in a Ramah which was near her grave, and 
perhaps nearer than any other city. The dignity which 
it derived from its antiquity and from its association 
with memories of Samuel would also fit it for a place 
in a strain of impassioned poetry like this. 

Let us turn now to the use of this passage in the 
Gospel of Matthew. We see at once why it was sug- 
gested to the evangelist by the slaughter of the infants, 
for the tomb of Rachel was near not only to Ramah, 
but also to Bethlehem, as we are told in Gen. 35 : 19, 
20, so that the crime of Herod was enacted, as it were, 
under her very eyes. But, it is said by almost all com- 
mentators, the inhabitants of Bethlehem belonged to 
Judah, so that the slaughtered babes could not be called 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 299 

her children. This is to forget, however, that after 
the return from the captivity there was no distinction 
of tribes. Many families kept genealogies tracing their 
lineage to various tribes ; but the whole people were 
called Jews, taking their name from the tribe of Judah, 
and occupied the land without distinction of tribal 
boundaries. Such had been the case for more than 
five hundred years when the Gospel by Matthew was 
written. Hence, as Rachel was considered ideally by 
the prophet the ancestress of the Israelites, only a 
small part of whom were her actual descendants, so 
now she is considered ideally by the evangelist as the 
mother of the whole people, only a part of whom are 
her actual descendants. As the favorite wife of Jacob, 
as a strong and beautiful character, and as one doomed 
to a life of disappointment and to a premature and 
pathetic death, she had made a deep impression on all 
acquainted with her history. This is illustrated re- 
markably in Ruth 4:11, where the friends of Boaz 
wish him many children of his bride, and say, "Jehovah 
make the woman that is come unto thy house like 
Rachel and like Leah, which two did build the house of 
Israel," thus putting Rachel first, though she was the 
second wife, and though she had but two sons, while 
Leah had six. It was natural, then, that the New 
Testament writer, in the passage before us, should 
speak of her as the ancestress of all the people, and 
should depict her as bewailing the fate of a portion of 
them slain in circumstances of such atrocity and such 
pathos. 

My interpretation of the prophecy does not depend 
in any essential manner upon my rejection of the 



300 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Ramah north of Jerusalem. If we accept that city, and 
hold that it was chosen by the prophet because it was 
in the territory of Benjamin and the scene of special 
cruelties, there will still be ground for the application 
of the passage to the event which took place in Beth- 
lehem, a city which now belonged to all the tribes in 
common, to her descendants not less than to others, 
and which had become the scene of a heartrending 
tragedy. But the use of the passage in the Old Testa- 
ment and its use in the New are brought into more 
obvious connection by the supposition that the Ramah 
mentioned in it was near the sepulchre of Rachel, as 
also Bethlehem was, and that the lamentation was caused 
by the calamities of persons the majority of whom were 
ideally, though not actually, her descendants. 

We may now examine the formula of quotation em- 
ployed here by Matthew, and we shall find that it is 
not without special significance. Usually he introduces 
his prophetic quotations with the words, "that it might 
be fulfilled." As we have seen in the passages from 
his Gospel already discussed in this chapter, the 
formula, " that it might be fulfilled," probably refers to 
the design of God in overruling typical events, and in 
shaping prophetic language so that the future might be 
foreshadowed in the present and the past. Here, how- 
ever, the writer abandons his favorite formula, and says 
only, " Then was fulfilled." This choice of another 
formula, of an exceptional kind, in the case before us, 
was not the result of mere chance or forgetfulness. It 
may have been occasioned by the fear of the evangelist 
that his readers would be perplexed with the statement 
that the slaughter of the infants took place in order 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 301 

that prophecy might be fulfilled, though it would be 
true in a certain sense, and with explanations too 
cumbrous to introduce into his work. But, however 
this may be, the formula is manifestly not so strong as 
that which it has displaced, and we must not press it 
too far. The mourning at Bethlehem fulfilled the 
words of Jeremiah ; but in what manner did it fulfill 
them ? Three views of the force of the formula in this 
case have been advanced. 

1. Many believe that it was designed merely to ex- 
press result, and not intention, such a resemblance of 
the two cases as renders the language applicable to 
both and not a strict typical relationship of the one to 
the other. We might suppose that Rachel is brought 
forward not as an individual, but as the representative of 
motherhood. We know her maternal instincts, her 
longing for offspring, her rejoicing, even in death, that 
"she had brought a man-child into the world." She is 
an admirable symbol of motherly yearning and motherly 
sorrow. If the prophet speaks of her as the repre- 
sentative of the mothers of Israel bereaved of their 
children by war, it is because she is the best repre- 
sentative of all bereaved mothers. In every tragedy 
like that of Bethlehem, therefore, his words have a new 
fulfillment, for mothers are bereaved, and Rachel weeps 
afresh. 

2. If this view is too vague and general, the formula 
of quotation will permit us to follow Broadus, who cites 
Calvin, Fairbairn, and Keil, in tracing a specific rela- 
tion between the events referred to in the Old Tes- 
tament and in the New. The massacre at Bethlehem, 
writes Broadus in substance, like the captivity of Israel, 

2a 



302 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

threatens to destroy the future of the nation, which 
really depends on the Messiah. " If the infant Mes- 
siah is slain, then is Israel ruined. Suppose only that 
some at Bethlehem, who had heard the shepherds and 
the magi, now despondingly believed that the new-born 
king was slain, and their mourning would really cor- 
respond to that mourning at Ramah which Jeremiah 
pathetically described. In both cases too, the grief at 
actual distresses is unnecessarily embittered by this 
despair as to the future, for the youthful Messiah had 
not really perished, just as the captivity would not 
really destroy Israel. In both cases the would-be 
destroyer fails, and blessings are in store for the people 
of God." It is often said in answer to such a state- 
ment, that the attempt to destroy a whole nation by 
slaughter and deportation is an event too magnificent 
to stand as a type of the attempt to destroy the Mes- 
siah by the slaughter of a few babes. But the smallest 
events narrated in the Gospels become magnified by 
virtue of their relation to the Son of God and the sal- 
vation of the world. In this manner the fishermen of 
Galilee are made royal, the crown of thorns a celestial 
diadem, and the treachery of Judas the greatest of 
crimes. 

3. The formula of quotation employed in this case, 
however, does not oblige us to hold a view so strong as 
this, if it offends us. The words, " then was fulfilled," 
may mean no more, to quote again from Broadus, 
"than that there is here a noteworthy point in the 
general relation between the older sacred history and 
the new." They do not assert that the passage quoted 
from the prophet is a definite prediction, distinctly 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 303 

foretelling the murder of the infants. Yet it may be 
that they assert something more than a mere resem- 
blance of the events, and set forth a resemblance brought 
about under the government of him who overrules all 
things for good, and takes notice when even a sparrow 
falls to the ground. 

If some of these typical passages, as for example the 
four preceding ones, appear to stand on the extreme 
verge of the class to which they belong, let us reflect, 
first, that the Oriental mind is imaginative, and revels 
in the use of type and analogy and illustration ; and 
secondly, that the Bible is distinguished even among 
Oriental books for the boldness and the abundance of 
its imagery. 

XXX. At 2 Cor. 6:17, the writer exhorts his read- 
ers to lead pure Christian lives, and to keep themselves 
from debasing associations. He adopts as his own the 
language of Isaiah 52 : 11, 12, without any formula of 
quotation : 

Come out from among them and be ye separate, 
And touch no unclean thing, and I will receive you. 

This adoption by the apostle of prophetic language 
as appropriate to his purpose leads Toy to say that 
"the prophet's exhortation to the captives in Babylon, 
to guard themselves against (ceremonial) defilement in 
that idolatrous land, is transferred by the apostle to the 
Christians of his day, according to the principle of 
interpretation that whatever is addressed to Israel is at 
the same time a prediction respecting the times and 
people of the Messiah." 

On the contrary: (1) No such principle as this has 



304 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

ever been held by the apostles or any others. Probably 
Toy has in mind the belief of the writers of the New 
Testament, and of the great mass of Christians, that 
there is a genetic connection between the Old Tes- 
tament and the New ; that Israel is in a general way a 
type of Christ and of his people ; and that the typical 
element of the old dispensation is found not only in 
many of its larger features, but also in many of the 
more minute. But this statement is totally different in 
essence, as well as in words, from the statement which 
he has presented to us as the belief of the Apostle to 
the Gentiles, " that whatever is addressed to Israel is at 
the same time a prediction respecting the times and 
people of the Messiah." To maintain, as Darwin does, 
that man is genetically connected with the lower 
vertebrates, so that he is typified and prefigured in 
them, is not to maintain "that whatever is said of the 
lower vertebrates is at the same time a prediction 
respecting man." The typical element of the Scrip- 
tures is in this respect like the typical element of other 
literatures ; it does not appear on every page ; here it 
emerges, and there it withdraws from our vision. Even 
in the " Second Part of Faust," the most prolific in rec- 
ondite meaning of all poems, we are not always con- 
fronted with secondary reference. Nay, further ; 
where the typical element in literature becomes clear- 
est, there many features are ascribed to the type which 
are not reproduced in the antitype : the resemblance is 
only general. (2) The words are not quoted as a 
prediction at all ; no prediction is asserted or intimated, 
and no prediction is called for by what the apostle is 
saying. If the passage were found in a modern sermon 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 305 

commending purity of life, the thought would not occur 
to any one that the preacher regarded it as a prediction. 
(3) The language is quoted by the apostle simply be- 
cause it is an appropriate, vigorous, and poetic embodi- 
ment of his thought, and because the duty of purity, 
enjoined upon the people of God in the prophetic age, 
is equally a duty in the Christian dispensation. The 
prophet, it is true, has the departure from Babylon in 
view, and also ceremonial defilement. But he sees in 
the departure from Babylon a departure from corrupt 
and corrupting associations, and in the ceremonial de- 
filement a symbol of spiritual defilement. The law of 
clean and unclean had a typical and moral purpose, and 
the prophet took the right view of it. ' Indeed, all the 
prophets regarded the ceremonial as of value only as it 
represented the real ; they were not chiefly concerned 
about the letter of the law ; they inculcated its spirit, 
and its letter only as the vehicle and expression of the 
spirit. Alexander has well written : 

The idea that this high-wrought and impassioned composition 
has reference merely to the literal migration of the captive Jews, 
says but little for the taste of those who entertain it. The whole 
analogy of language, and specially of poetic composition, shows 
that Babylon is no more the exclusive object of the writer's 
contemplation than the local Zion and the literal Jerusalem in 
many of the places where those names are mentioned. Like 
other great historical events, particularly such as may be looked 
upon as critical conjunctures, the deliverance becomes a type, 
not only to the prophet, but to the poet and historian, not by 
any arbitrary process; but by a spontaneous association of ideas. 

XXXI. In Matt. 13 134, 35. we find the statement 
that our Lord " spake in parables unto the multitudes, 



306 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the 
prophet, saying, 

I will open my mouth in parables ; 

I will utter things hidden from the foundation of the world." 

The passage is in Ps. yS : 2, and the quotation is from 
the Septuagint, but is quite free. 

The first objection to the quotation is that the para- 
bles of Jesus are not at all like those which the psalm- 
ist had in mind when he wrote it. The difficulty 
vanishes upon closer inspection. It is true that the 
parables or illustrations of the psalm are drawn from 
the history of Israel, and not, like those of Jesus, from 
nature and from the manners and customs of the time ; 
but the Hebrew words rendered in the Gospel " parable " 
and " things hidden," as Toy says, " are used with large 
latitude in the Old Testament, of parables, proverbs, 
apothegms, and, as here, of any didactic poetical piece 
in which there may be nothing of a properly gnomic or 
parabolic character." The words, then, embrace in 
their meaning such parables as our Lord uttered. 

The second objection turns upon the typical use of 
such passages, and, if it were admitted in principle, 
would deny the whole typical element in the literatures 
of the world, sacred and secular. 

The saying " was spoken through the prophet " by 
Jehovah, and the words are therefore regarded as his, 
and not man's. They are intended in the psalm to 
state the method of teaching which Jehovah employed 
when he spoke to the masses of the people, as is evident 
from the introductory lines : 

Give ear, O my people, to my law, 

Incline your ears to the words of my mouth. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 307 

Some psalms show by their structure that they were 
intended for the choir of the tabernacle or the temple, 
and not for the people at large. Others are for the 
people in general. All commentators refer Psalm 78 
to the latter class ; and its opening words prove that 
its author produced it for popular instruction. Delitzsch 
comments on them as follows : " The poet comes for- 
ward among the people as a preacher." 

Let us turn now to the New Testament. When Je- 
hovah appeared in the person of Christ, the evangelist 
says, he often employed the same illustrative method 
of instruction in addressing the masses of the people, 
as is evident from the words, " All these things spake 
Jesus unto the multitude in parables." Thus the ful- 
fillment was literal. The Old Testament is full of illus- 
trative matter of all kinds, designed to bring the truth 
to the apprehension of ordinary minds. Jesus, in his 
studies of the Scriptures, must have been struck with 
the prominence of this feature, and with the divine 
wisdom and mercy manifest in it, just as we are. His 
own methods of illustrative teaching, when addressing 
the multitudes, were probably based on those which 
he found employed in the sacred books for the same 
purpose. The method was summed up most graphi- 
cally in the words of the quotation, which would often 
be present to his mind as a brief expression of the 
thought of God concerning the best way of imparting 
religious truth to the majority of men, and he would 
adopt them as an inspired formulary of it, and thus 
speak in parables, that these words might be fulfilled. 
The psalmist, who carries out the method to a certain 
extent, was in so far a type of the Messiah, who was to 



308 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

give it the fullest exemplification and sanction in his 
own teaching. That the application of the quotation 
turns upon the fact that the psalmist addressed it to 
the "people" expressly is evident from what our Lord 
says in Matt. 13 : 11-17, where he makes a distinction 
between the multitude, in their need of parables, and 
the apostles, who did not need them so much. 

The second line of the quotation is very free, but the 
departure from literal exactness does not affect the argu- 
ment of the New Testament writer in the least, and he 
neither gains nor loses by it. The passage quoted, if 
read as it stands in the Hebrew text, will be seen to 
refer to the illustrative method by which God seeks to 
instruct the ignorant, and it is in this sense that the 
New Testament writer employs it. 

XXXII. In Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10, 11; Luke 
20 : 17 ; Acts 6:11; and 1 Peter 2 ;j, there is a quota- 
tion from Ps. 1 18 : 22, 23 : 

The stone which the builders rejected, 

The same was made the head of the corner : 

This was from the Lord, 

And it is marvellous in our eyes. 

The psalm was written after the exile, and was de- 
signed to comfort and cheer the people. Israel, re- 
jected by the nations, is chosen by God to be again his 
favored people. The providence of God is thus full of 
surprises ; those whom man rejects because ot their 
holiness, he promotes to great honor, and " chooseth 
the weak things to confound the mighty." This prin- 
ciple of the divine government finds its highest and 
most perfect illustration in Christ, and hence the words, 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 309 

originally applied to Israel, are even more applicable to 
him. But furthermore, Israel was a type of Christ, and 
hence, to use the words of Toy, "in Acts and Peter " 
the passage "is applied directly to the Messiah ; as, in- 
deed, the Messiah was the summing up and embodi- 
ment of the spiritual traits and functions of Israel." 

XXXIII. In Matt. 26:31 and Mark 14:27, Zech. 
13:7 is quoted. The prophet represents Jehovah as 
saying to the sword : " Smite thou the shepherd, and the 
sheep shall be scattered." Our Lord, in the quotation, 
changes the second person to the first and says it is 
written, " I will smite the shepherd." Toy writes : 
" This alteration, it is probable, was made by Jesus 
himself, in order to render into plain language the 
poetical expression of the prophet, and refer imme- 
diately to God what the latter assigns to the avenging 
sword." It is a change for the purpose of explaining, 
such as I consider in our fourth chapter. If Jehovah 
commanded the sword to smite, he himself smote. As 
to the application of this passage to the Messiah, we 
might understand that our Lord merely borrows the 
language, which was written originally for quite a differ- 
ent occasion, as appropriate to the event about to 
occur. But the word "for," which he uses, seems to 
indicate that we have a real prophecy of his death and 
of the scattering of Israel, the scattering of the disciples 
being the first of the dispersion of the whole people. 

The question remains whether the prophecy is a di- 
rect prediction of the crucifixion and the dispersion of 
the disciples and of Israel, or an indirect one. There is 
absolutely no reason why the prophecy may not be re- 
garded as direct. But let us admit that it originally re- 



310 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

ferred to some king of Israel who was to be slain, and 
to the dispersion of the people in consequence of his 
death. The Hebrew institution of kingship was itself 
a type of Christ, so that every Hebrew king was in 
some sense a type, vivid in proportion to his faithful- 
ness. The king in this prophecy was, then, a type of 
Christ, and the effect produced by his death a fore- 
shadowing of the disaster which was to fall upon the 
disciples at the crucifixion, and upon Israel under 
Titus. It is objected to this that the shepherd in the 
passage quoted must be an unfaithful shepherd, be- 
cause in the eleventh chapter, two chapters back, three 
unfaithful shepherds are mentioned and denounced, as 
also a foolish shepherd, who should succeed them. But 
the shepherd of the quotation does not seem to be any 
one of these ; on the contrary, God calls him " the man 
that is my fellow." But if we grant that the shepherd 
of the quotation is an unfaithful king, he would still be 
an imperfect type of Christ, as an imperfect king. 
Thus Ewald writes : " The theocratic king and the 
Messiah are related to one another as the copy and the 
original." The Messiah "differed from the common 
kings in perfectly performing the will of God, whom 
they served only imperfectly." " Hence it is clear 
that whatever is said in the old Testament of the kings 
as God's representatives may be affirmed of the Mes- 
siah." Those who are acquainted with the typical pas- 
sages in general literature can scarcely read this pas- 
sage of Zechariah without feeling that the language 
runs over into the typical ; and they will find many 
passages in the neighboring chapters which, did they 
occur in a poem outside the Bible, they would mark at 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 311 

once as typical, suggesting as they do personages and 
events other than those of the immediate foreground, 
but placing them in only a dim half-light. 

XXXIV. Still another instance of the typical inter- 
pretation is found in the quotation of Zech. 11 113 in 
Matt. 27:9: "Then was fulfilled that which was 
spoken through Jeremiah the prophet, saying, And 
they took the thirty pieces of silver, the price of him 
that was priced, whom certain of the children of Israel 
did price ; and they gave them for the potter's field, as 
the Lord appointed me." 

The passage is clearly from Zechariah, though it is 
ascribed to Jeremiah in our text of the Gospel. The 
various theories by which scholars have sought to ac- 
count for this discrepancy are stated by Broadus in his 
"Matthew" better than by any one else. The discus- 
sion, however, does not properly fall within the scope 
of this book. My opinion is expressed by Toy, who 
says : " It is not probable that the error arose from a 
mistake of memory in the evangelist." " It is more 
likely that it is a clerical error, though it must have got 
into the text early, since the present reading is sup- 
ported by the mass of manuscripts and versions." 

The quotation is far from exact, and many have 
doubted that it was intended for the passage in Zech- 
ariah ; but there need be no question of this, for the 
general sense is preserved ; and the custom of quoting 
without regard to the precise words was universal, as I 
have shown in our second chapter. The member of the 
sentence which says "they gave them for the potter's 
field," is an extreme instance of the paraphrastic and 
exegetical quotation, designed to bring out the pro- 



312 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

phetic meaning of the original, and to show the relation 
of the passage to the event recorded in the New Testa- 
ment, a usage illustrated in our fourth chapter. 

The formula of quotation is the same with that of 
Matt. 2:17, and is less strong than the one usually 
employed by the evangelist, "That it might be ful- 
filled." Perhaps he was deterred by reverence from 
saying that the Saviour was priced at thirty pieces of 
silver in order that a prophecy might be fulfilled, or by 
fear that his readers would be perplexed, while yet he 
himself found in the event a fulfillment of prophecy. 
In any case, whatever his motive, he employs a formula 
which is not so strong as the one it displaces. The 
three views that may be entertained of a prophecy thus 
introduced are presented in my discussion of Matt. 
2:18, and need not be repeated here. It appears to 
me that we have in the case before us a clear instance 
of the typical, and that the second view is applicable 
to it, though not forced upon us by the formula of quo- 
tation, and presented to us only by the character of the 
transactions brought before us in the passage of the 
Old Testament and in that of the New. 

The action described in the Old Testament passage 
was itself emblematic and typical. It seems to have 
been in prophetic vision, and not in reality. The 
prophet, the representative of Jehovah, is the shepherd 
of the people. Their sins are such that he determines 
to abandon them ; and he demands of them his wages. 
They manifest their contempt of him by valuing his 
services at thirty pieces of silver. Jehovah then speaks, 
and shows, first, that he regards the insult as offered 
to himself, and not simply to his prophet ; and, secondly. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 313 

that he regards the thirty pieces of silver as the value 
placed by the people, not on the service rendered them, 
but on Jehovah, as a person. These two things are 
evident from his words : " Cast it unto the potter, the 
goodly price that I was priced at of them." When 
Jehovah calls the thirty pieces of silver a "'goodly 
price," he speaks ironically. The typical nature of 
the passage becomes clear, when we observe that 
Jehovah speaks of himself as sold by his nation for 
thirty pieces of silver, and that this transaction, seen 
by the prophet in vision, was accomplished literally 
when the God-man was valued at the same paltry sum, 
and sold for it. 

The events were not only identical in respect to the 
inner spirit which occasioned and molded them, but 
they were significantly alike in outer drapery. In both 
cases God was valued contemptuously at exactly thirty 
shekels, the price of the life of a slave under the 
Mosaic law (Exod. 21 : 32). At the command of God 
the prophet cast his thirty shekels into the temple to 
the potter ; and the thirty pieces paid to Judas were 
also cast down in the temple, and were given to the 
potter. The difficulty which has been found with the 
statement that Zechariah cast the money to " the potter 
in the house of Jehovah " is altogether gratuitous. It 
is true that we do not know of any potter selling his 
wares in the temple ; but we know that money changers 
carried on their business there, and " those that sold 
oxen and sheep and doves." Moreover, not only the 
merchants of these beasts and birds were there, but 
the beasts and birds themselves, with all their offend- 
ings of filth and odor and noise. 

2b 



314 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

It was said in excuse that the convenience of the 
worshipers was promoted. But this motive would 
bring a potter into the temple as well. Many offerings 
were of oil and grain and flour and wine and incense 
and salt, in definite small quantities ; the Talmud, 
according to Lightfoot, says that these " and other 
requisites for the sacrifices" were sold in the temple; 
and, indeed, from the nature of the case they would 
not be banished from the precincts to which beasts 
were admitted ; and they would be most tastefully and 
conveniently conveyed to the priests in vases or earthen 
vessels of greater or less cost, 1 according to the ability 
of the worshiper. Every year millions of persons came 
to Jerusalem to present offerings and sacrifices, which 
they could not well bring with them, and which, there- 
fore, they would be glad to find near at hand, together 
with receptacles to hold them. There can thus be 
little doubt that somewhere within the enclosure of the 
temple there was a shop for the sale of pottery, both 
in the time of Christ and in that of the prophet, when 
the house of Jehovah was especially neglected and de- 
filed, since such articles would be among the least 
objectionable and most convenient. 

Alford observes that "the potter" mentioned by 
Matthew " seems to have been some well-known man, 
since he is designated in the Greek by the article." 
What is more probable than that he was the potter 
who had the monopoly of the temple market for earthen- 
ware vessels ? One able to purchase this privilege 

1 Wrapping paper was not yet invented, nor cheap tinware nor glass- 
ware ; and cheap pottery would seem to have been necessary in the cir- 
cumstances. 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 315 

would be prominent, and he would be well known to 
the priests by daily contact with them. 

Many critics, as Ewald, Bleek, Meyer, Kuenen, and 
Toy, have been so perplexed by this mention of the 
potter in the temple, to whom the prophet cast the 
money, that they have proposed to substitute another 
word for "potter." By changing a vowel in the He- 
brew word for potter, a word is produced somewhat 
like the Hebrew word for treasury. But, as the word 
thus formed is not a Hebrew word at all, another 
change of the spelling is made, and thus, by two 
changes, the word for treasury is manufactured, and it 
is then thrust into the record. 1 This violence is un- 
necessary. The difficulty felt by the critics about find- 
ing a potter in the temple appears to be based on the 
supposition that the presence of a potter would imply 
the presence of his pottery, with its laborers, its ma- 
chinery, and its dauby clay. Thus Toy says : " It seems 
improbable that such a man should have his workshop 
in the sacred enclosure." But, as we have seen, the 
potter would sell his wares in the temple without mak- 
ing them there. 

Much discussion has arisen over the question why 
Jehovah ordered the prophet to cast the thirty pieces 
of silver to the potter, rather than to any other person. 
No definite answer can be given ; but there must have 
been some reason in the nature of the case which the 
lapse of time has concealed from us ; and the most 
plausible conjectures connect the command in various 
ways with the idea of contempt, as if God would say : 

1 Ladd accuses Matthew of " laying stress on a corruption of the He- 
brew text." The " corruption ' ' is imaginary. 



316 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

" The price at which my people value me is contempt- 
ible ; let it be used for contemptible purposes." This 
would imply that earthenwares were of small value, or 
that the business of producing and selling them was 
little esteemed. 

Whatever the immediate reason for the order may 
have been, we are to find a deeper reason in the care 
of God to foreshadow typically the events .connected 
with the crucifixion of his son. 

XXXV. How hard pushed Kuenen is to find objec- 
tions to the quotations of the New Testament from 
the Old may be seen in his criticism of Jesus for his 
citation of Ps. 41 : 9 with reference to Judas, as re- 
corded in John 13 : 18. The Hebrew reads: 

He which did eat of my bread 
Hath lifted up his heel against me. 

Kuenen assures us that Jesus, or the evangelist re- 
porting him, changed the wording of the quotation 
slightly in order to make it refer to the last passover 
and the participation of the traitor in it. "The slight 
variation," says Kuenen, "not 'my bread,' but 'bread 
with me,' is plainly used to make the agreement be- 
tween the complaint of the poet and the event to 
which it applied still more distinctly visible." 

But the reading of John 13 : 18 best established, 
and adopted by the revisers of the English Bible, has 
"my bread," and not "bread with me." The critic 
has been so eager to make a point against the ordi- 
nary Christian views of Holy Scripture, that he has 
been willing to base his objection upon a reading 
of inferior authority, without a word of warning 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 317 

that the foundation on which he builds is of so sandy 
a nature, or that the reading he adopts is even called 
in question. Were this reading correct, however, it 
could not properly be used as he uses it. The phrase 
of the psalmist, " to eat my bread," and the phrase 
which Kuenen attributes to Jesus, " to eat bread with 
me," mean exactly the same thing ; for, when the 
psalmist says that the traitor "has eaten my bread," 
he is not thinking of bread which happened to belong 
to him, but of bread on his own table, where he sat as 
host, and the other as guest. The phrase always 
means this ; and Kuenen's argument is based on the 
mere sound of the words rather than on their sense. 

That part of the psalm which is quoted is Messianic 
in the saddest sense, presenting to us the Saviour and 
Judas as these persons were typified in David and his 
pretended friend. 

XXXVI. In Acts 2 : 25-32 and 13 : 35 we have a 
quotation from Psalm 16 to show that the resurrection of 
Christ is predicted in the Old Testament. In the first 
of these passages verses 8-1 1 of the psalm are quoted ; 
but in the second, only a part of verse 10. The argu- 
ment is the same in both cases ; and if in the second 
the Apostle Paul quotes but a fragment of the passage, 
it is because he conforms to the literary custom dis- 
cussed in our third chapter, knowing that his hear- 
ers, who were Jews, would recall the whole passage 
from this brief line. 

Kuenen objects to the use made of the quotation in 
the New Testament, affirming that it turns upon the 
mistranslation of the lines in the Septuagint version. 
"The original," he writes, "is as follows : 



318 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

Thou wilt not abandon my soul to hades, 
Thou wilt not suffer thy pious one to see the pit. 

The Greek translator wrote : 

Thou wilt not leave my soul in hades, 

Or in the power of hades; 
Nor wilt thou suffer thy holy one to see corruption. 

And it is precisely on this variation of the translation 
from the original, that Peter, in the Acts, founds his 
interpretation." Kuenen would say, also, that Paul 
makes a similar mistake in his application of the pas- 
sage, basing it upon the word "corruption" in the 
Septuagint, instead of the word "pit," which is found 
in the Hebrew text. 

The answer is twofold. First, it is not quite certain 
that the Hebrew word in question means "pit," and 
not "corruption " ; l it is a question of derivation ; and 
though, if the majority of recent Hebrew scholars are 
right, the rendering of the Septuagint is not literally 
exact, there is a respectable minority who justify it, 
and the discussion is not yet at an end. But secondly, 
we are not concerned with this question. Kuenen is 
mistaken in representing the argument as turning upon 
this word ; on the contrary, it is based upon the pas- 
sage as a whole, and upon the idea conveyed by the 
word. Thus Hengstenberg : 2 " The argument of Peter 
remains in full force, though we should substitute 
1 grave ' for ' corruption,' if only it is understood that by 
1 seeing ' something abiding is meant, such a ' seeing ' 
as is always meant when the opposite phrase of ' see- 

1 The revisers of the English Bible render the word " corruption." 

2 " Commentary of the Psalms." 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 319 

ing life ' is employed." Paul also, in his line of argu- 
ment (Acts 13 : 36, 37), lays no stress upon the idea 
of corruption as distinguished from the grave : " David, 
after he had in his own generation served the will of 
God, fell on sleep, and was laid unto his fathers, and 
saw corruption ; but he whom God raised again saw no 
corruption." The argument is not at all overthrown if 
we substitute " grave" for " corruption." Christ did 
not see the grave in the same sense with David ; he 
did not see it in the sense of the psalmist. But fur- 
thermore, if the psalmist wrote "the pit," the idea 
which he intended to convey was not that of a mere 
depression or excavation in the earth, but that of the 
grave, with all of decay and corruption that the word 
implies ; and hence the apostles made no mistake when 
they accepted the Septuagint word, because it was the 
one their hearers could refer to, and because it pre- 
sented no thought not conveyed as fully by the Hebrew 
word. When Hosea exclaims : 

" I will ransom them from the power of the grave ; I 
will redeem them from death : O death, where are thy 
plagues ? O grave, where is thy destruction ? " 

he does not think of the grave as a mere excavation 
in the ground, or as a mere cavern in the rock. He 
thinks of it as an image of death, of destruction, of 
dissolution. So in the case immediately before us, the 
psalmist thinks of the pit as the synonym of death, of 
destruction, of dissolution. Thus Vatablus writes : 
"To see the pit is to suffer putrefaction." That the 
word conveys this meaning is evident from Job 17 : 14, 
where "the pit" is used as a synonym for "the worm" ; 



320 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

and from Isa. 38 : 17, where we have the phrase "the 
pit of corruption." (See also Job 33 : 18 and Isa. 51 : 
14.) We now perceive how erroneous the statement of 
Kuenen is ; he commits the very fault of which he 
accuses the sacred writers ; he bases his criticism upon 
the mere sound of a word, and not upon its meaning ; 
and the apostles, in using the expression of the Sep- 
tuagint, are true to the thought conveyed by the He- 
brew, which the critic ignores. 

Let us now consider the statement of the apostles 
that the passage is a prophecy of the resurrection of 
Christ from the dead. We are met at once by such 
writers as Kuenen and Toy with the assurance that it 
refers only to the author himself, and to the present 
world. When he says, " My flesh shall dwell in 
safety," the word "flesh" means his whole personality; 
and when he says, " Thou wilt not leave my soul to 
sheol," the word "soul" means exactly the same thing. 
" On what shall happen to him after his decease," says 
Kuenen, "he does not think at all." 

There are not many interpreters, however, thus able 
to shut their eyes to the glory which this psalm re- 
veals. Thus even Ewald writes : " There is hardly to 
be found a clearer or more beautiful declaration con- 
cerning the whole future of the individual man than 
the present. For the calm glow of the highest inner 
expansion and serenity here lifts the poet far above the 
future and its menaces, and it stands clearly before his 
soul that in such continued life of the spirit in God 
there is nothing to be feared, neither pains of the flesh, 
his body, nor death ; but where the true life is, there 
also the body must finally come to its rest ; because 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 321 

deliverance also of the soul from the grave is possible 
through him who wills only life." Few expositors fail 
to find in the psalm this rending of the veil of the 
future and this shining through of immortal hope. 

But if we must dissent from those who limit the 
view of the psalmist to himself and the present world, 
we must dissent also from Stuart, Hackett, and others, 
who regard the psalm as exclusively Messianic, and 
find in it no reference to the author or to the present 
world. This is the view of Hengstenberg in his 
" Christology " ; but he retracts it in his "Commentary 
on the Psalms," on the grounds that the New Testa- 
ment does not declare the whole psalm to be Messianic ; 
that verses 1-8 have but little of a Messianic character ; 
that the exclusive reference of verses 9-1 1 to the Mes- 
siah rests on a false exposition ; and finally, that the 
psalm belongs to a large class, in which the psalmist is 
a type of the Messiah, and should not be wrested from 
its connection with its fellows. The psalm refers to 
the psalmist ; but its language, in the verses quoted in 
the New Testament, sweeps beyond the psalmist, and 
becomes predictive. Not only so, but the psalmist, 
under the influence of the Spirit, understood his words 
to be predictive : " Being therefore a prophet, and 
knowing that God had sworn with an oath to him, that 
of the fruit of his loins he would set one upon his 
throne ; he foreseeing this spake of the resurrection of 
the Christ, that neither was he left in hades, nor did 
his flesh see corruption." It is not said that David 
clearly foresaw the resurrection of Christ, but that, 
believing the promise of God to make one of his de- 
scendants the Messianic king, he was moved to speak 



322 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

words which can be applied in their full sense only to 
the resurrection of Christ. David may not have had full 
knowledge of the purport of his prophecy ; but he knew 
from the promise of God, made through Nathan (2 Sam. 
7 : 12-16), that one of his descendants should reign 
"forever," that "his kingdom should be established 
forever," that his "throne should be established for- 
ever," and was inspired to use the far-reaching language 
of the quotation. That the prophecy of Nathan is 
typical is held by the writer of the Epistle to the He- 
brews, who quotes a part of it as referring to Christ ; 
see my discussion of Heb. 1 : 5, the second quotation 
of the verse. Peter tells us in his first Epistle (1 : 10- 
1 3), that the prophets did not completely understand 
their own predictions, but studied them with intense 
interest, and were consoled in their inability to solve 
the mystery with the revelation that they spoke to 
future generations, who would rightly interpret their 
words in the light of the fulfillment, and would be 
helped by them. Thus the statements of Peter about 
the prophets in general, and about the degree of fore- 
sight granted to David in the case now before us, are 
in complete harmony. The remarkable prediction of 
Nathan should be studied in connection with Ps. 89 : 
19-37 and 132 : 11-18. The promise of God through 
Nathan refers primarily to Solomon as an imperfect 
type of Christ ; but when it declares that God " will 
establish the throne of Solomon's kingdom forever," 
it presents to us language which was only partially 
realized in Solomon, and which sweeps forward to the 
greater Son of David, our Saviour. It is not other- 
wise with the psalm now before us, which was based 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 323 

on the prophecy of Nathan ; it refers to David, in a 
certain sense ; but it flows far beyond him in the verses 
which Peter quotes. Observe how naturally the words 
fit the Messiah, while only by an unnatural interpreta- 
tion, like that of Kuenen and Toy, can they be limited 
to the psalmist, or even applied to him in a literal 
sense. The flesh dwelling in safety in the tomb ; the 
soul not left to sheol, but brought back ; the holy one 
not allowed to see the pit of corruption ; the path of 
life shown to him ; and finally his ascension to the right 
hand of God ; all these expressions point to Christ, 
and they can have had only an imperfect and typical 
fulfillment in David, "who died and was buried," who 
"saw the pit," and who "ascended not into the 
heavens." The typical character of the passage is 
clearly indicated by the overflow of its language from 
the type to the antitype. 

XXXVII. In John 2 : 17, Ps. 69 : 9 is quoted as 
follows: "The zeal of thine house shall eat me up." 
The psalmist, however, places the verb in a past tense : 
"The zeal of thine house hath eaten me up." The 
evangelist changes the form to show that he regards 
the psalm as Messianic, and this verse as a prediction 
of the zeal of Christ for the house of God. The quo- 
tation is thus a paraphrase designed to explain the pas- 
sage quoted, according to the custom considered in our 
fourth chapter. The psalmist speaks of himself, but, 
being a type of Christ, many portions of the psalm 
become plainly typical, and would be so regarded did 
they occur in any other great literature. The psalm is 
elsewhere quoted in the New Testament as Messianic 
(John 15 : 25 ; 19 : 28 ; Rom, 15 13); but it is not 



324 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

necessary to regard every part of it as predictive, for in 
all typical literature the language often advances from 
the primary to the secondary reference, and then re- 
cedes. 

XXXVIII. A good example under this head is found 
in Heb. 2 : 12, 13. The writer is speaking of the in- 
carnation, and saying that Christ took the nature of 
men. Because he is of the same nature with them, "he 
is not ashamed to call them brethren." That " he is 
not ashamed to call them brethren " is shown by the 
facts that he does expressly call them brethren in the 
Old Testament, and does expressly associate himself 
intimately with them in other ways. 

He calls them " brethren " in Psalm 22 : 22 : 

I will declare thy name unto my brethren, 

In the midst of the congregation will I praise thee. 

That this psalm is Messianic has been the almost 
unanimous opinion of both Jews and Christians from 
the earliest times. Our Lord appropriated its opening 
words to himself at the moment of his deepest anguish 
for us on the cross (Matt. 27 : 46). It foretells the 
crucifixion, and describes it in minute detail, as the 
piercing of his hands and feet (ver. 16), and the part- 
ing of his garments by lot (ver. 18). Then it pictures 
him as delivered (ver. 21), and as proclaiming the name 
of God to his " brethren," acknowledging men, even 
after his glorious resurrection, as his nearest kindred. 
The psalmist referred to himself ; but, guided by the 
Holy Spirit of prophecy, he became a type of Christ, 
and employed language which could be applied only 
poetically and figuratively to himself, but literally to 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 325 

the Redeemer of our race. Bleek observes that the 
particulars chosen from the history of the passion by 
Matthew seem to have been selected with a special 
view to illustrate this psalm ; yet we must not forget 
that the minute correspondence of the gospel and the 
psalm has its ground in the real correspondence be- 
tween the facts and their foreshadowing in prophecy. 
Delitzsch regards the psalm as typical, and more than 
typical : 

David's description of personal experience in suffering goes 
far beyond any that he himself had known ; his complaints de- 
scend into a lower depth than he himself had sounded ; and his 
hopes rise higher than any realized reward. Through this hy- 
perbolical character, the psalm became typico-prophetic. David, 
as the sufferer, there contemplates himself and his experience in 
Christ ; and his own present and future both thereby acquire 
a background which in height and depth greatly transcends the 
limits of his own personality, 

Yet again, Christ not only calls men his brethren, 
but also associates himself with them in other ways 
which indicate his possession of their nature. First, 
he no longer occupies the position of the supreme 
Deity, but comes down to a position where it is neces- 
sary for him to trust in the Deity, like other men, and 
says : " I will put my trust in him," or, according to the 
Hebrew as translated by Toy : " I will hope in him." 
The whole verse from which the words are taken is 
rendered thus in the Revised version : " I will wait for 
the Lord, that hideth his face from the house of Jacob, 
and I will look for him." 

Christ associates himself with men, once more, by call- 
ing his followers his children : " Behold, I and the chil- 

2c 



326 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

dren whom the Lord hath given me." These two immedi- 
ately preceding quotations are from Isa. 8 : 17, 18. It is 
the latter that has given Kuenen the greatest offense. 
He pronounces it "perhaps the strongest instance in the 
whole epistle of quotation according to the sound." 
On the contrary, instead of being a " quotation accord- 
ing to the sound," it rests on a broad and firm founda- 
tion of the context from which it is taken, and of the 
typical relation of the Old Testament to the New. 
The prophecy of which it is a part was uttered at a 
time when the kingdom of Judah hastened to its 
ruin. The policy of the government was to make 
alliance with the Northern kingdom of Israel and 
the kingdom of Syria, in an effort to resist the 
encroachments of Assyria, instead of trusting Je- 
hovah alone. The alliance was morally corrupting, 
for both Israel and Syria were given to idolatry, 
with its superstitions, its cruelties, and its odious and 
deadly vices. Against this policy Isaiah protested with 
his utmost zeal, but in vain. In the passage under re- 
view he utters a specially earnest remonstrance, and 
takes exceptional means to impress it upon the atten- 
tion of his opponents, for it is a crisis in the history of 
his people and a crisis in his own life. He names one 
of his sons Shear-jashub, "A remnant shall return" 
(7:3; 10 : 20-22); and the other Maher-shalal-hash- 
baz, " Haste spoil, hurry prey " (8 : 3, 4). These names, 
as Toy says, " were to teach the people that Assyria 
would spoil Damascus and Samaria; that, in the midst 
of foreign invasion and dreadful suffering, God would 
still be with Judah, and that, though the ravages of 
war should leave only a remnant, their God would yet 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 327 

have mercy on that remnant, and make of it a nation ; 
and the same lesson was involved in the prophet's own 
name, Isaiah, 'Salvation of God.'' On account of 
these significant names, which the prophet and his 
children bore, he cried : " Behold, I and the children 
whom Jehovah hath given me are for signs and for 
wonders in Israel from Jehovah of hosts." 

It is only by ignoring the element of double refer- 
ence in Scripture, and the special relation of the Old 
Testament to the New, that any one can fail to justify 
the New Testament writer in quoting from these words. 
The kings of the Hebrew history were foreshadows of 
Christ in his kingly office, and the priests were fore- 
shadows of Christ in his priestly office. So all the 
prophets were foreshadows of Christ in his prophetic 
office, beginning with Moses, who said, " Jehovah thy 
God will raise up unto thee a prophet from the midst 
of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me." Their typical 
character becomes especially prominent in the more 
earnest and crucial moments of their lives, like the one 
before us. So Isaiah, the greatest of the prophets 
after Moses, was an eminent type of the Prophet who 
should come. Our Lord thus regards him, and ap- 
plies to himself words which Isaiah spoke of his own 
mission (Luke 4 : 18, 19; compare Isa. 61 : 1, 2). So 
here, Isaiah, in a notable moment of his life, stands as 
a type of the chief Prophet. He has such confidence 
in the word of God, though the nation at large rejects 
it, that he presents his own name and the names of 
his children as witnesses of it. The children of a 
prophet were not necessarily prophets ; but he associ- 
ates his children with him, and himself with his chil- 



328 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

dren, in this prophetic utterance. It was because of 
their relationship to him that he could name them so 
significantly and make himself a partaker with them of 
the scorn of those who scorned the prediction, and of 
the sad justification of the ultimate fulfillment. In all 
this he was foreshadowing the act of Christ by which 
he associated himself with his people, and his people 
with himself, in both his humiliation and his glory. 
Delitzsch well writes : 

We may go further, and say that the Spirit of Jesus was al- 
ready in Isaiah, and pointed, in this holy family united by bonds 
of the shadow, to the New Testament church united by bonds 
of the substance, which in his high-priestly prayer (John 17) 
the incarnate Word presents to God, making intercession in 
terms strikingly similar to those which Isaiah here employs. 

Difficulty has been found with the fact that in the 
original passage the children are the children of the 
prophet, while in the application of the passage they 
must represent the children of God, and only the 
brethren of Christ, not his children. But surely this 
is straining at words. What the writer of the epistle 
says is that Christ took our nature, so that " both he 
that sanctifieth and they that are sanctified are all of 
one." Of this, three illustrations are presented from 
the Old Testament : in the first, he calls us " breth- 
ren " ; in the second, he takes our position of depend- 
ence on God ; and in the third, he associates us with 
himself as his children. All these illustrations are 
pertinent. Besides, he has used the term " children " 
of his disciples; see Mark 10 : 24 : " Children, how 
hard it is for them that trust in riches to enter the 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 329 

kingdom of God"; and John 21 : 5 : "Children, have 
ye aught to eat ? " 

We may close our discussion of these quotations by 
saying with Ebrard : " Thus the three citations do in 
reality prove exactly what they ought to prove." 

XXXIX. In Heb. 1:6 we have a quotation which 
seems to refer to Christ in his glory : " When he 
again shall have brought his first begotten into the 
world, he saith, And let all the angels of God worship 
him." The older expositors, such as Chrysostom, Am- 
brose, Anselm, and Thomas Aquinas, almost uniformly 
regarded the text as referring to a second bringing in 
of Christ to the world. Recent critics in general, such 
as Tholuck, DeWette, Liinemann, Bohme, Biesenthal, 
Hofmann, Delitzsch, and the English revisers, take this 
view, and hold that the Greek admits of no other. The 
Greek word rendered "bringeth" in our Common 
version, is in the aorist subjunctive, and should be ren- 
dered as in the margin of the revision, " shall have 
brought." The position in the sentence of the word 
rendered "again" is such that it must refer to a second 
bringing of Christ, and not to a second quotation from 
the Old Testament. The second bringing of Christ 
into the world may be his resurrection, or his coming 
at the general judgment. 

Whence is the quotation derived ? Apparently from 
the Septuagint of Deut. 32 143, of which it is a literal 
reproduction. The fact that it is from a passage which 
is not found in our present Hebrew Bible has oc- 
casioned perplexity. But the translators of the Septu- 
agint must have had before them a Hebrew text which 
contained it, and must have considered it genuine. 



330 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

We know that our present Hebrew text is defective in 
certain places, and there is no reason to doubt that this 
may be one of them. When Toy says that " the 
Septuagint verse has been expanded by scribes by the 
paraphrastic addition of material " from certain psalms, 
he indulges his fancy too much. There is absolutely 
no evidence of such intentional tampering with the 
sacred text. 

The chapter from which the quotation is taken is the 
song of Moses. It was regarded by the Jews as pre- 
dicting and depicting the reign of the Messiah in glory. 
All the psalms of praise and triumph to which reference 
has just been made are typical, and find their perfect 
fulfillment in the glorious reign of Christ, which had 
its commencement in his resurrection, and will attain 
its final and complete form at his second coming. 
Thus the song of Moses and these psalms may be held 
to refer in the strictest sense to the time when God 
"again shall have brought his first begotten into the 
world." 

In any case, even if the words quoted should prove 
to be not genuine, the thought which they express is 
found in numerous unquestioned passages. (See Psalms 
29, 96, 97, 103, and 148.) I ask attention especially to 
Psalms 29 : 1 ; 103 : 20, 21 ; and 148 : 2, in all of which 
the angels are expressly called upon to worship. It 
may be that these Scriptures were in the mind of the 
writer, and that he chose the line from the Septuagint 
as truthfully and beautifully summing them up for his 
purpose. If so, he would use it as Scripture without 
raising the question of its genuineness, for it is Scrip- 
ture as to its sense, even if not as to its verbal form. If 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 331 

he has employed it thus, the quotation is illustrated in 
my sixth chapter, where I have grouped many similar 
instances. 

VI. Final Propositions. 

My present study leads me to the following propo- 
sitions : 

I. The element of double reference abounds in every 
great literature, and not unfrequently triple and quad- 
ruple reference occurs. To deny that double reference 
exists in Hebrew literature is to deny that this litera- 
ture is the product of literary genius. In other words, 
if we say that every passage of Hebrew literature must 
be interpreted as having one reference, and no more, 
we apply to it an arbitrary rule which we must 
abandon the moment we begin the study of any other 
great literature which the world has produced. 

II. The secondary reference usually relates to some 
of the more important of human interests and feelings, 
such as loyalty, patriotism, valor, the reformation of 
political abuses, the hope of national aggrandizement, 
art, music, literature, obedience to God, eternal life. 
If the Messianic idea was prominent in the minds of 
the Hebrew writers, it would naturally seek such a 
channel of expression. 

III. The Hebrew writers, in producing their second- 
ary references, did not imitate other writers ; they 
simply employed a method of teaching common to liter- 
ary genius in all ages and all lands. 

IV. The secondary references in any literature are 
not always clear to the reader ; they do not always lie 
on the surface ; they often belong to the deeper things, 



332 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

and may perplex the most skillful interpreter, as the 
manifold references of " The Second Part of Faust " 
sometimes caused Bayard Taylor almost to despair. 
In such cases the author himself is our best guide, if 
he still lives to be consulted. So when the Holy Spirit 
in the New Testament explains to us this feature of 
the Old, of which he himself is the author, we should 
listen to him with reverence. 

V. The double references of Scripture are essentially 
of the same kinds with those of other great literatures. 
The superficial differences are like those which distin- 
guish the double references in the ancient Greek drama 
from those of any modern literature. The writer con- 
structs his double references from the materials acces- 
sible to him. The novel had not been invented in the 
time of yEschylus ; but the theatre was thronged, and 
the drama had reached a high stage of development; 
therefore he used the tragedy as the vehicle to convey 
to the world his wealth of subtile and recondite 
allusions. It was an unwritten law of the Greek stage 
that the play should present only the characters of 
mythology ; and hence ^Eschylus, when he wished to 
deal with some question of politics or religion, or to 
praise some popular hero of the hour, or to condemn 
some misleader of the people, was obliged to carry back 
his hearers to the Homeric age, to put his sentiments 
into the mouths of characters either fabulous or long 
since dead, and to present these personages as types 
and images of those living statesmen and orators and 
warriors whom he wished to portray. All this is now 
changed. Except for a limited number who support 
the theatre, the novel occupies the place once filled by 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 333 

the drama. The whole apparatus of Homeric gods and 
goddesses and warriors is swept into oblivion, and the 
modern novelist creates his characters from his own 
fancy. Hence the secondary references of the "Aga- 
memnon" differ in color and form from those of "Ras- 
selas," and " Ernest Maltravers," and the " Marble 
Faun," and " Lothair," and " Wilhelm Meister." But 
the same mental principle is apparent in the ancient 
play and the modern novel, producing different results 
simply because it works with different materials and in 
different circumstances. Thus also the secondary ref- 
erences of Hebrew literature differ on the surface from 
those of Greek ; but the same mental principle produced 
both. The Hebrew writer worked with materials dif- 
ferent from those of the Greek, and in different circum- 
stances. Hence 

i. Instead of looking back to the fabulous past, and 
calling down the gods from Olympus, and summoning 
Agamemnon and Achilles and Ulysses from the grave, 
his eyes turned forward. 

2. The Hebrew prophet, as he looked forward, was 
filled and dominated by the resplendent figure of the 
Messiah, the hope of Israel and of the world, and it 
was natural that his secondary references should be 
colored by the Messianic idea, of which the Greek poet 
was wholly destitute. 

3. Every nation had its special mission appointed by 
the providence of God, and the Greek not less than the 
Jewish. But " salvation is of the Jews" ; the Messiah 
was "the seed of Abraham" and "the seed of David"; 
and hence Hebrew history was ordained by infinite 
wisdom to foreshadow in a peculiar manner the Messiah 



334 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

and his kingdom. It was full of types of the " good 
things to come." The Hebrew writer, looking forward 
and not backward, filled with Messianic anticipations, 
eager to set forth the glories of a golden age which he 
dimly foresaw, instinctively caught at the types and 
shadows of the Messiah which Hebrew history, and 
especially the characters and events of his own time, 
presented to him ; and the exodus from Egypt, or the 
return from Babylon, or the victories of David, or the 
peaceful reign of Solomon, became the materials from 
which he constructed his glowing portraitures ; or he 
might derive a part of his colors from events much 
more casual and minute, or from persons much more 
insignificant. 

Had ^Eschylus possessed the gift of prediction, had 
he been filled with the expectation of the Messiah, and 
had the history of his people presented to him types 
and shadows of the Christian dispensation, his second- 
ary references would have been Messianic, like those 
of Isaiah and Jeremiah ; for the coming Messiah would 
have occupied in his mind the place of those temporary 
and local questions of Greek politics and religion and 
art which engaged his attention. 

Thus the double references of the Scriptures do not 
stand alone ; they come from the same source with the 
multiple references of all great literatures ; and their 
peculiarities arise from the peculiar conditions of the 
biblical writers. The writers of the New Testament, 
in studying the Old, discovered many typical and 
secondary references, and quoted them in their just ap- 
plication to the Messiah, precisely as the modern 
writer discovers the same feature in other literatures, 



DOUBLE REFERENCE 335 

and quotes many passages in their secondary sense ; 
as, for example, if he wishes to express Goethe's con- 
ception of Lord Byron, or of the spirit of poesy, he 
makes use of those parts of '* Faust " in which Euphor- 
ion appears. 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 

PERHAPS no charge against the writers of the 
New Testament is made more frequently or with 
greater confidence than that which, if sustained, would 
convict them of the illogical use of proof-texts from 
the Hebrew Scriptures. It is claimed that they some- 
times reason from their quotations in an inconclusive 
and incorrect manner, so that the evidence which they 
adduce does not prove the truth which they seek to 
support by means of it. Even Paley, in his " Evi- 
dences of Christianity," thinks it necessary to " dis- 
tinguish between the doctrines of the apostles and 
their arguments " ; he holds that the first were given 
them by revelation, and hence were true, while the 
second may have been their own, and if so, were liable 
to a certain infusion of error. This is but a specimen 
of the apologies which many believing writers have 
deemed it necessary to offer for the authors of the 
New Testament when these are accused of using the 
Old in an unwarranted manner. I have considered, in 
other chapters of this book, several passages on which 
this criticism is based, and have found these writers 
innocent of all blame. A number of other passages 
remain, however, and I shall now discuss all of these to 
which my attention has been called, following the order 
in which they occur in the New Testament. 
336 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 337 

I. In Matt. 22 : 32 ; Mark 12 : 26 ; and Luke 20 : 37, 
our Lord quotes from Exod. 3 : 6 to prove the resurrec- 
tion of the dead. Here is the first of these passages : 
" Have ye not read that which was spoken unto you by 
God, saying, I am the God of Abraham, and the God 
of Isaac, and the God of Jacob ? God is not the God 
of the dead, but of the living." 

There are two grounds on which it has been denied 
that this passage warrants the conclusion drawn from 
it. The first is advanced by some writers of a popular 
but uncritical kind. "Christ," they say, "places the 
emphasis on the present tense, 'I am.' But in the 
Hebrew the verb is not expressed at all, so that the 
emphasis of his argument is false, and the conclusion 
which he draws from the tense is left without any sup- 
port whatever when his argument is examined carefully." 

The second ground is advanced by writers of a 
higher class, who perceive that our Lord does not de- 
rive his argument from the tense of a verb which is 
absent from the text, and who themselves are willing 
to translate the text with the verb in the present tense. 
They say, however, that when the text is thus trans- 
lated with the verb in the present tense, it affords no 
support to the conclusion which he derived from it. 
Thus Toy and his school find nothing more in the 
words than the statement of Jehovah that " I am the 
God whom Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob worshiped when 
they were on the earth." 

The usual escape is to maintain, as Broadus does, 
that " our Lord does not so much argue from the pas- 
sage in its obvious meaning, as authoritatively expound 
it in a deeper sense." But there is no need of such a 

2 D 



338 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

refuge as this. The argument is not weakened in the 
least by the absence of the verb in the original. Nor 
does it go beyond the plain and obvious sense of the 
passage. That this is so is apparent from the follow- 
ing considerations : 

1. The passage as quoted by Christ in the Gospel 
by Mark has no verb. This evangelist recurs to the 
Hebrew form of the quotation, as if on purpose to 
show that the argument does not depend upon the pres- 
ence of the verb in the sentence. 

2. The argument was regarded by the learned Jews 
to whom it was addressed as masterly. Luke tells us 
that " certain of the scribes answering said, Master, 
thou hast well said. For they durst not any more ask 
him any question." Matthew tells us that the effect 
upon the common people was equally great : " When 
the multitudes heard it, they were astonished at his 
teaching." That the argument defeated the whole 
party of the Sadducees, learned and unlearned, is stated 
in the next words : " The Pharisees, when they heard 
that he had put the Sadducees to silence, gathered 
themselves together." It is absurd to suppose that the 
argument would have produced such an immense effect 
if it had been based upon the tense of an absent verb. 
The Sadducees were accustomed to debate, and many 
of them were men of learning and of keen and large 
mental powers. 

3. It is a law of all languages that words which are 
omitted but understood are to be considered as ex- 
pressed. In all languages many words are omitted for 
the sake of grace or of brevity, when the omission 
creates no obscurity ; and in such cases the sentence 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 339 

is construed exactly as if nothing were omitted. This 
is the practice of the very writers who are perplexed 
with the case before us. They show the folly of athe- 
ism from the text : " The fool hath said in his heart, 
There is no God," knowing that in the Hebrew there 
is nothing answering to the words, " there is." In the 
case before us, no one doubts that the verb, were it 
supplied, would have to be in a form which, taken in 
connection with the context, would denote present 
time. All translations which express it at all put it in 
the present tense. To make a point of its absence, 
therefore, is to commit the very fault with which our 
Saviour is charged, since it is to draw a conclusion that 
the premise will not justify. The question is, whether, 
if the verb in the present tense is supplied, the reason- 
ing of our Lord will be logical. 

4. Let us grant that Jehovah intended to say noth- 
ing more than Toy finds in his words : " I am the God 
whom Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob worshiped when they 
were on the earth." The inference which our Lord 
draws from the declaration will stand as necessary and 
natural. If the soul perished at death, if man were but 
a temporary bubble, God would not become our God, 
since he would have no occasion to reveal himself to 
us. He does not reveal himself to sheep and oxen, 
and is not their God, since they do not know him ; and, 
if we were as ephemeral, he would treat us as he treats 
them. The fact stated to Moses, that he revealed him- 
self to the patriarchs, and entered into covenant with 
them, and became the object of their adoration, shows 
that they were not creatures of the moment, and that 
they did not become extinct at the end of their earthly 



340 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

pilgrimage. Let us now put the argument into this 
new form and observe how complete it is : " Have ye 
not read that which was spoken unto you by God, say- 
ing, I am the God whom Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob 
worshiped ? He does not become the God of persons 
destined to perish in a day, but of those gifted with 
life ; hence he is not at any time the God of the dead, 
but the God of the living." 

II. The one hundred and tenth Psalm is quoted 
more frequently in the New Testament than any other 
passage of the Scriptures, and always of the Messiah. 
The Jews held it to be Messianic, and therefore the ap- 
peal was cogent which Christ and his immediate follow- 
ers made to it, as recorded in Matt. 22 : 44 ; Mark 12 : 
36 ; Luke 20 : 42, 43 ; Acts 2 : 34, 35 ; 1 Cor. 15:25- 
27 ; Heb. 1:13. The psalm is Messianic on its very 
face, and all attempts to apply its language to any 
of the Hebrew monarchs break down by their own 
weight. Alexander says well : " The repeated, explicit, 
and emphatic application of this psalm in the New Tes- 
tament to Jesus Christ, is so far from being arbitrary 
or at variance with the obvious import of the psalm it- 
self, that any other application is ridiculous." 

Difficulty has been found w T ith the warlike tone of 
the psalm, especially in the closing part of it, where 
the hero is represented as "filling the places with 
dead bodies " and "striking through the head in many 
countries." But David was a warrior from his youth, 
and it was natural for him to predict the conquests of 
the Messiah with martial imagery. The same imagery 
is used in other Messianic passages, as Num. 24 : 17- 
19 ; Ps. 2 : 9 ; 45 : 4, 5 ; Zeph. 1 : 14-18 ; Hab. 3. 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 341 

Difficulty has been found by Toy with the fact that the 
king of the psalm is "a present king," and not a future 
one. But prophecy often speaks of the Messiah as pres- 
ent, or even as past, the prophet standing beside him or 
gazing back upon his sufferings and his glory. (See 
Isa. 53.) "The poetical and prophetical style," Driver 
says, " is characterized by the singular ease and rapid- 
ity with which the writer changes his standpoint, at one 
moment speaking of a scene as though still in the re- 
mote future ; at another moment describing it as 
though present to the gaze." Toy, of course does 
not appeal to the tenses of the verbs, for an argument 
drawn from the Hebrew tenses alone is always some- 
what insecure, as the following from Driver's now 
famous little book on " The Use of the Tenses in He- 
brew " will show: "The Hebrew language, in striking 
contrast to the classical languages, in which the devel- 
opment of the verb is so rich and varied, possesses 
only two of those modifications which are commonly 
termed 'tenses.' These tenses were formerly known 
by the familiar names of past and future ; but inas- 
much as the so-called past tense is continually used to 
describe events in the future, and the so-called future 
tense to describe events in the past, it is clear that 
these terms, adopted from languages cast in a totally 
different mold from the Hebrew and other Semitic 
tongues, are in the highest degree inappropriate and 
misleading."' "The tenses in Isa. 9 : 5 are precisely 
identical with those of Gen. 21 : 1-3 ; it is only the 
context which tells us that in the one case a series of 

1 Page I. 



342 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

events in the future, and in the other in the past, is 
being described." l 

A third difficulty is found with the fact that this 
psalm, if Messianic at all, must be directly so, while the 
Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament are usually 
typical, and not direct, taking some living person, or the 
nation of Israel, as " a shadow of the good things to 
come." It is true that the majority of the Messianic 
prophecies are typical ; but others are direct ; and the 
psalm before us belongs to a remarkable class of predic- 
tions which cannot, even by great torture, be made to 
speak of any one save Jesus Christ. Such direct proph- 
ecies are Isa. 53 ; Dan. 9 : 25, 26 ; Zech. 9 : 9. 

Our Lord ascribes the psalm to David, and there is 
absolutely no reason to call the Davidic authorship of 
it in question. As Alexander has said, it is " corrobo- 
rated by the internal character of the composition, its 
laconic energy, its martial tone, its triumphant confi- 
dence, and its resemblance to other undisputed psalms 
of David." The effort is made to bring the psalm 
down to the Maccabean age, not on the ground that its 
language is of this later age, but on the ground that we 
might hope to find a Jewish king at that time who was 
also a priest, to whom it could be said : 

Thou art a priest forever 
After the order of Melchizedek. 

"The direct recognition of a Jerusalem king as priest," 
writes Toy, " seems to suit only one period of Jewish 
history, namely, the Maccabean, when a Levitical dy- 
nasty sat on the throne." The Maccabees were indeed 

1 Page 4. 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 7>43 

priests by legal descent ; but the psalm speaks of one 
who was to be priest, not by legal descent, not after the 
order of Aaron, but by extra-legal title, " after the 
order of Melchizedek." Besides, of whom but of 
Christ could it be said : "Thou art a priest forever" ? 
Thus on every ground the psalm must be regarded as 
referring to our Lord directly. 

Many hostile critics accuse our Lord of ignorance, 
assuming, without the least evidence, as we have seen, 
that the psalm which he ascribes to David was written 
in the Maccabean period, nine hundred years later. 
Many critics, sincerely friendly to Christianity, have 
sought to meet this objection by claiming that our 
Lord in his argument merely took his Jewish adversa- 
ries on their own ground, and did not intend either to 
affirm or to deny the Davidic authorship of the psalm 
to which he appealed. The Jew T s ascribed it to David ; 
and he reasoned from their belief in reference to its 
author. He said : " You hold that David wrote the 
one hundred and tenth Psalm under the influence of 
the Holy Spirit. You hold also that the Messiah was 
to be the son of David. Will you tell me, therefore, 
how it was that David called the Messiah his Lord if 
the Messiah was to be his son, and no greater than his 
son ? " Now such arguments are perfectly legitimate ; 
they are recognized as fair in all schools of- debate and 
inquiry; and our Lord might have employed this 
method of leading men to the truth without subjecting 
himself to any just blame. But when a person em- 
ploys this mode of reasoning he should say so, and 
should not profess to reason on other grounds. Our 
Lord does not say so, and does profess to reason on 



344 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

other grounds ; for he affirms for himself his belief 
that David wrote the psalm, declaring, as reported by 
Mark : " David himself saith in the Holy Spirit." 
Peter also declared the same thing on the day of Pen- 
tecost : " David ascended not into the heavens : but he 
saith himself : 

" The Lord said unto my Lord : 
Sit thou on my right hand, 
Till I make thine enemies thy footstool." 

While, therefore, it would have been perfectly proper 
for Christ and his apostles to reason from the beliefs 
of their hearers, without affirming those beliefs, it is 
perfectly evident that they did not do so in the case be- 
fore us. Nor is there the slightest occasion to attrib- 
ute this course to them, since there is not the slightest 
occasion to doubt that David wrote the psalm, guided 
by the Spirit of inspiration, and foreseeing that the 
Messiah should be both his Lord and his son. 

III. There has been much unnecessary debate over 
the quotation of Hab. 2 : 3, 4 at Rom. 1:17 and Gal. 
3:11: "The just shall live by faith." The meaning 
of the original passage is well stated by Toy : 

The prophet is predicting the overthrow of the Chaldeans 
(about B. c. 606), whose invasion he has announced in the pre- 
ceding chapter. He goes up to his watchtower, and is com- 
manded to write his vision plainly, that the people may be con- 
soled by it ; the fulfillment, he is told, will surely come, though 
it may be delayed ; the invading enemy shall be destroyed, the 
earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the glory of Yahve 
(ver. 14), shall fully see his glory manifested in the destruction 
of the Chaldeans. His description of the invaders begins with 
verse 4, in which it is said of them that they are puffed up, 






ILLOGICAL REASONING 345 

haughty of soul, and not upright ; and this indictment is illus- 
trated and expanded in the rest of the chapter. But in verse 4 
it is added, in contrast with this haughty wickedness, on which 
shall come destruction, that the just, who hold firmly to Yahve, 
shall escape destruction, and live by his constancy; or the mean- 
ing is that, in spite of the wicked arrogancy of the enemy, the 
just shall be preserved alive. The Hebrew word here rendered 
"constancy," means "firmness, steadfastness," of the body, 
as in Exod. 17:12 (Moses' hands, upheld by Aaron and Hur, 
were " steady ") ; or of the moral nature of God (Deut. 32 : 4 : 
" a God of faithfulness and without perverseness, just and upright 
is he ") ; and of man (Prov. 12 : 22: " lips of deceit are an abomi- 
nation to Yahve, but they that do faithfulness are his delight ) ; 
the common signification is ' moral and religious fidelity and 
constancy, faithfulness to all obligations, whether to God or to 
man. ' " In this is certainly involved, according to the Old Testa- 
ment conception, trust in God in a general sense ; but the 
prominent idea is steadfast adherence to him in true-hearted 
obedience. Such a faithful, obedient man, says the prophet, 
shall be kept alive in this time of turmoil and death. 

All this, concerning the scope of the prophetic pas- 
sage and the meaning of the Hebrew word rendered 
"faith," I heartily accept. But I as heartily dissent 
when Toy contrasts this meaning with that of the 
word "faith" in "Romans and Galatians," passages 
illustrating which he gives in full. " For therein is 
revealed a righteousness of God by faith unto faith : 
as it is written, But the righteous shall live by faith " 
(Rom. 1 117). "Now that no man is justified by the 
law in the sight of God is evident : for, The righteous 
shall live by faith, and the law is not of faith ; but he 
that doeth them shall live in them" (Gal. 3 : 12, 13). 
The quotation in these epistles, he says, " is the 
specific acceptance of Christ, whereby the believer 



346 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

is justified, apart from works." The Pauline word 
"faith" includes this, but it also includes far more. 
There has seldom been given a better definition of the 
Pauline word than the definition which I have just 
quoted from Toy, as that of the Hebrew word in the 
prophetic passage : " steadfast adherence to God in 
true-hearted obedience." The whole argument of the 
Apostle Paul in the Epistles to the Romans and the 
Galatians is that such " steadfast adherence to God in 
true-hearted obedience," distinguished from all kinds 
of legalism, as the serving in the letter and not in the 
spirit, the superstitious resort to rites and ceremonies, 
the practice of mere external moralities in which is no 
filial love, brings the grace of God to man, and hence 
is the condition of our salvation. To say that the 
"faith" of the apostle is nothing more than "the spe- 
cific acceptance of Christ," is to forget all his long 
demonstration that Abraham was justified by faith, 
and that David " pronounceth blessing" upon the man 
of "faith." God is the object of faith; and Christ is 
the object of faith because he is God manifest to faith. 
Toy himself takes a broader view in another place : 
" More generally stated, Paul's position is, that no 
man can gain God's favor by obedience to the moral 
law ; since perfect obedience — less than which God 
would not accept — is impossible to man ; it is only by 
a transformation of the soul, and oneness with God, 
that salvation can be attained ; and such transforma- 
tions and oneness are represented by trust and identi- 
cal with it." 

The entire argument of the apostle in these epistles 
is to show that faith is the condition of justification 



IIXOGICAI, REASONING 347 

now, that it always was the condition of justification, 
even in the age of the patriarchs, and that legalism, 
bondage to the letter, slavish performance of religious 
rites, moralities without reference to God and without 
heart, cannot justify to-day, and could never justify. 
Thus the thought of the prophet, to sum up what has 
just been said, fits into the argument of the apostle 
exactly and sustains it cogently ; and it is only by mis- 
understanding one or the other that any discrepancy 
between the two can be discovered. 

This may be made even more apparent by a closer 
inspection of both. That the "just man" of the 
prophet is not at all the legally "just man" of the 
Pharisees, Toy would be the first to maintain. In no 
case does an Old Testament prophet commend the 
righteousness of the law ; the righteousness required 
by the prophets is always the " steadfast adherence to 
God in true-hearted obedience" which the New Testa- 
ment enjoins. The obedience which they require is 
never legal ; it is necessarily imperfect, yet it is peni- 
tent, warm, grateful, loving, trusting, ethical. A man 
possessed of this righteousness, Habbakuk says, shall 
live by his " steadfast adherence to God in true-hearted 
obedience," even when destruction overtakes others. 
There is an eternal principle underlying the prophetic 
words ; " God changeth not " ; he is always propitious 
to such men ; and hence they are always saved. Such 
is the argument which the apostle derives from the 
prophet ; and it flows quite in the forms of logic. 

It should be added that the argument from this par- 
ticular quotation is found only in Galatians, and not at 
all in Romans, where Toy places it. 



348 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

IV. At Rom. 3 : 10-18 the Apostle Paul throws to- 
gether a number of sentences from the Old Testament 
in a single passage, making what I have called in the 
fifth chapter of this book a " composite quotation." 
The majority of critics suppose that the fact to be 
proved by the quotation is the universal sinfulness of 
man. On this supposition a difficulty has been found 
by a few of them ; for while some of the sentences 
quoted declare the universal sinfulness of our race in 
words of the strongest kind, others refer only to par- 
ticular persons or classes, as the especially wicked 
among the Jews known to the writers. Of the former 
kind are all the opening sentences of the passage, con- 
tained in verses 10-12, taken from Eccl. 7 : 20 ; Ps. 14 : 
2, 3 ; 53 : 3, 4. Of the second kind are all the other 
sentences of the passage, embracing verses 13-18, 
from Ps. 5:10; Isa. 59 : 7, 8 ; Ps. 36 : 1. 

The objection is that in these latter sentences the 
apostle attempts to prove a universal proposition by 
evidence which covers only a limited number of cases. 
Those who entertain this objection forget their logic. 
The inductive method of reasoning, which men have 
always been obliged to employ, and which is emphatic- 
ally the method of modern science, is exactly the 
method pursued here. Thus the universality of the 
law of gravitation is proved by observations made in 
but a petty sphere of the universe. 

Our analysis of these quotations has shown that the 
apostle uses two kinds of evidence ; first, statements 
of the Old Testament which assert the universality of 
sin ; secondly, statements of the Old Testament which 
call attention to the manifestations of sin in individuals 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 349 

and classes. The first proof is the so-called " perfect 
induction " of modern logicians, and the second, in- 
duction in the ordinary scientific sense. The apostle 
weaves these together in a single masterly argument. 
Could any proof be more cogent than passages of 
Scripture which teach the universality of sin followed 
by passages which illustrate and enforce this teaching 
by examples of the extreme manifestation of sin in in- 
dividuals and classes ? 

Thus far my reply assumes the correctness of the 
ordinary view of critics, that the fact to be proved is 
the universal sinfulness of man. A very strong minor- 
ity, however, maintain that the apostle is here dealing 
with the Jews alone. Thus Baumgarten-Crusius : "Now 
follows a long passage of Old Testament expressions 
gathered together, the sense of which is given in verse 
19. Its reference is to the Israelitish people; and the 
double reference to the Jews and the heathen, discov- 
ered by Paulus and others, cannot be maintained." On 
this ground, all possible difficulty with the passage dis- 
appears. The proposition to be proved is that the Is- 
raelites, notwithstanding their superior privileges, were 
sinful. The proof is of two kinds. First, the Scrip- 
tures declare that all men are sinful, including both 
Gentiles and Jews. Secondly, sin had a very remark- 
able and extreme development among the Jews, as their 
own inspired writers testify. 

In either case the apostle marshals in a logical order 
the different extracts from the Old Testament which 
he welds together in his argument. Thus Meyer : 
"The arrangement of the passage is such that at first 
the sinful condition of men is pointed out in verses 10- 

2e 



350 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

12 ; then their sinful practices in speech, verses 13, 14 • 
and deed, verses 15-17; and then the sinful source 
from which all these arise, verse 18." 

V. The quotation of Mai. 1 : 2, 3 at Rom. 9:13 has 
been criticised on the ground that the Apostle Paul 
takes the words out of their original meaning, and 
uses them as a proof-text after thus distorting them. 
The case is like this : Paul is showing that not all the 
descendants of Abraham are heirs of the promises 
made to him, and instances Esau, who was rejected by 
God even before his birth. To prove this statement, 
he cites Gen. 25 : 23, where God says to Rebecca: 
" The elder shall serve the younger." He then adds 
the verse from Mai. 1 : 2, 3 : " Jacob have I loved, but 
Esau have I hated." The objection is, that by Jacob 
and Esau the prophet means not persons but nations, 
and refers to the national histories of Israel and Edom ; 
while the apostle interprets him as if he meant the 
persons Jacob and Esau. Thus Pocock : " What is 
here said by Malachi relates to the preference shown 
to the posterity of Jacob over that of Esau." If we 
should adopt this view, the quotation would still pre- 
sent no real difficulty ; and we should say with Riick- 
ert : " It is not strictly a proof -text, but only a confirm- 
ation." The view, however, is rejected by some of 
the greatest of the modern expositors, as Meyer, for 
example, who says : " Like Paul, the prophet himself 
means by Jacob and Esau, not the two peoples, Israel 
and Edom, but the persons of the two brothers." In 
this case, the quotation is a cogent proof-text, and not 
merely confirmatory and illustrative. 

VI. The composite quotation of Hosea 2 : 23 ; 1 : 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 351 

10 at Rom. 9:25, 26 is perhaps oftener accused of 
faulty argument than any other. Toy represents the 
extreme view of the objectors : "The prophet's word," 
he writes, " refers solely to Israel. Now cast off, the 
nation shall after a time be taken again into favor with 
God, and called his sons. Paul identifies the ' Not my 
people' (the rejected Israel of Hosea) with the Gen- 
tiles, who, formerly aliens from God, were now in the 
gospel accepted by him as his people." 

There are three errors in this criticism. First, the 
real subject of the sacred writer is the sovereignty of 
God in the rejection and the reception of men; and 
the call of the Christian Jews and Gentiles is presented 
only as an example of it. Secondly, the writer is think- 
ing chiefly of the Jews, and of the Gentiles only inci- 
dentally. Thirdly, he sustains his point by a use of 
Scripture exactly like that which all Christian writers 
adopt when they reason about any principle of the di- 
vine government. I shall now justify these statements. 

Let the reader open his Bible at the ninth chapter 
of Romans and follow the argument of the apostle for 
himself. With this ninth chapter the writer begins his 
profound and touching discussion of the rejection of 
the Jews, which he pursues through three chapters, 
so that the main subject of the entire section is the 
Jews and not the Gentiles. In that part of the section 
in which- the quotation occurs, the writer is showing 
that the rejection of the Jews, in so far as they were 
not believers in Christ, was an act of divine sovereignty 
(9 : 14-22). But some Jews and some Gentiles have be- 
lieved, and their reception into the favor of God is also 
an act of divine sovereignty. To say that the writer is 



352 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

here speaking of the admission of the Gentiles to the 
church, is to forget his own declaration that he has in 
mind all Christians, both Jews and Gentiles : " Even 
us whom he hath called, not of the Jews only, but also 
of the Gentiles " (ver. 24). Nor is it the mere admis- 
sion of these persons to the church that he contem- 
plates ; it is their admission by an act of divine sover- 
eignty, for the sovereignty of God in calling and re- 
jecting whom he will, is the chief subject of contem- 
plation throughout the whole section. That the sover- 
eignty of God, in calling a remnant of the Jews to his 
kingdom, lies nearer his thought than the call of the 
Gentile Christians, is evident from the tenor of the 
whole section, and also, as Hofmann points out, from 
the fact that immediately after our quotation he tells 
us what "Isaiah crieth concerning Israel." He men- 
tions both Christian Jews and Gentiles as alike illus- 
trating the gracious sovereignty of God, but thinks 
chiefly of the Christian Jews. 

Let us, however, grant that the quotation is designed 
to refer solely to the sovereignty of God in the call of 
the Gentiles, as the majority of commentators hold. 
Does it prove what the apostle uses it to prove ? Let 
the reader open his Bible at Hosea 2 : 14, and study 
the whole passage, and see how the recovery of Israel 
is represented as resulting altogether from the gracious 
act of God in courting and winning the adulterous wife : 

Behold, I will allure her 

And bring her into the wilderness, 

And speak comfortably unto her, 

And I will give her her vineyards from thence, 

And the valley of Achor for a door of hope : 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 353 

And she shall sing there as in the days of her youth, 

And as in the day when she came up out of the land of Egypt. 

And it shall be at that day, saith Jehovah, 

That thou shalt call me Ishi ; 

And shalt call me no more Baali. 

For I will take away the names of the Baalim out of her mouth, 

And they shall no more be mentioned by their name. 

The restoration of the wife is thus the result of gra- 
cious seeking by the divine husband, who takes the 
initiative and uses the means adapted to win her back, 
according to his supreme purpose. No passage could 
better illustrate and prove the sovereignty of God in 
saving men, whether they are Jews or Gentiles, for 
none has ever portrayed more cogently and tenderly 
his fixed purpose, his advances to the erring, his pa- 
tient efforts to recover them to himself, and his final 
success. Here as in many other places the Apostle 
Paul quotes a fragment from the Old Testament, con- 
scious that its whole context will support him in the 
use he makes of it. In this instance he wishes to show 
us by an example the attitude of God toward all men, 
and his sovereign grace in their salvation. If it is 
proper to reason at all from examples, this is correct 
reasoning. If it is improper, then the whole science of 
induction, which consists of reasoning from examples, 
is a delusion. Our ordinary inductive reasoning is 
based upon the stability and uniformity of nature ; but 
if nature is stable and uniform, it is because its Creator 
and upholder is stable and uniform. He "changeth 
not," and is " no respecter of persons," dealing with 
Jew and Gentile by one method of justice and love. 
We may therefore reason inductively of his dealings 



354 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

with our race, and have no doubt of our conclusions. 
If he courted apostate Israel of old, and "called them 
his people which were not his people, and her beloved 
which was not beloved," he will court the Gentiles 
with the same sovereign and prevailing love ; for it is 
his nature to love, to seek the lost, and to use all the 
resources of his sovereign grace for their recovery. 
Dr. Toy is a preacher, and whenever he preaches and 
deduces some principle of the divine government from 
a historic example, he reasons in this way. If this 
method of reasoning is invalid, no history or prophecy 
of holy Scripture would be of use to us. If it is invalid, 
all Christian literature is wrong, for it appeals con- 
stantly to biblical history and prophecy for the warn- 
ings and encouragements which it utters to us. 

Turning now to Hosea I : 10, the source of the 
second part of the quotation, the same gracious sov- 
ereignty is asserted. In verse 6 God says : 

I will no more have mercy 

Upon the house of Israel, 

That I should in any wise pardon them. 

In verses 6 and J he declares that he will have mercy 
on the house of Judah but not on the house of Israel. 
Then in verse io he breaks out into a strain of com- 
passion and declares that ultimately even Israel shall 
find mercy and be multiplied. 

Thus both the chapters from which the New Testa- 
ment writer quotes relate to the same things ; both 
speak in a tone of royalty, and both illustrate the 
divine sovereignty in the rejection and the reception 
of men, which is the immediate theme. The divine 






ILLOGICAL REASONING 355 

sovereignty is set forth in the first quotation more 
clearly than in the second ; but the second states the 
gracious result of it in the history of Israel more clearly 
than the first. 

Meyer would account for the quotation by saying 
that the apostle regards the recovery of obdurate Israel 
as a type of the recovery of the Gentiles by God. This 
view may be accepted if by a type we may understand 
an example which sets forth some principle of the 
divine government. Tholuck says that this quotation 
and those from Isaiah which immediately follow it, are 
not intended for proof, and are brought forward only 
because their language is appropriate to the case in 
hand. I have considered this method of quoting, which 
is adopted in all literatures, in the eight chapter of this 
book. There could be no objection to the view of 
Tholuck were there any real difficulty which forbade 
us to regard these quotations as proofs of a proposi- 
tion. 

VII. The quotation of Isa. 10 : 22, 23; 1:9 at 
Rom. 9 : 27-29, is accused, though less vehemently 
than the preceding, and is of the same kind. The argu- 
ment is this: God proceeds as a sovereign in the rejec- 
tion of Israel in general and the salvation of a remnant. 
He did so of old, and hence we may know that he does 
so now. 

VIII. At Rom. 10: 19-21, the Apostle Paul quotes 
two passages to show that the Jews had been warned 
in their own Scriptures of their rejection and of the 
acceptance of the Gentiles. He is accused of mis- 
applying the Old Testament in both cases. 

The first quotation is from Deut. 32 : 21: 



356 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

I will provoke you to jealousy with that which is no nation, 
With a nation void of understanding will I anger you. 

On which Toy comments thus : " The threat in Deu- 
teronomy is that Israel shall be conquered or defeated 
by an apparently inferior people ; this is spiritualized 
by Paul into a prediction of the loss of religious supe- 
riority, with special application to the transfer of 
spiritual privileges and life to the Gentiles under the 
gospel." This is stated with entire assurance, as if 
there could be no doubt, as if there were no other ten- 
able view. The great majority of critics, however, 
hold that the passage refers literally to the reception 
of the Gentiles into the divine favor. Subjugation by 
war would hardly be called "provoking to jealousy." 

The second quotation is from Isa. 65 : 1, 2. The 
apostle writes : " Isaiah is very bold, and saith, 

I was found of them that sought me not; 

I became manifest unto them that asked not of me. 

But as to Israel he saith, All the day long did I spread 
out my hands unto a disobedient and gainsaying people." 
Thus the apostle regards the first verse of this quota- 
tion as referring to the Gentiles, and the second to the 
Jews. Many critics refer both verses to Israel, and 
they construe both verses, therefore, as a single sen- 
tence, and not as two sentences. There is no ground 
for this divergence from the apostolic interpretation. 
That the first verse refers to the Gentiles and the 
second to the Jews, is held by interpreters of all 
schools, as, for example, Delitzsch, Hofmann, Stier, 
Nagelsbach, Alexander, Hodge, and Alford. 

IX. The quotation at Rom. 11 : 8 is from Isa. 29 : 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 357 

10 and Deut. 29 : 4, and is one of the composite quo- 
tations considered in our fifth chapter : " As it is writ- 
ten, God gave them a spirit of stupor, eyes that they 
should not see, and ears that they should not. hear, 
unto this day." When Toy says that " Paul finds in 
these words a prediction of the indifference of Israel 
to the gospel," he gives no hint that any other view is 
even worth mentioning. The vast majority of com- 
mentators, however, hold that Paul does not regard 
them as a prediction at all, in the strict sense of the 
word. Hodge expresses the general consensus of 
scholars as follows : " The import of such citations 
frequently is, that what was fulfilled in the days of the 
prophet was more completely accomplished at the time 
referred to by the New Testament writer." So also 
Alford : " If we are to regard these passages as merely 
analogous instances of the divine dealings, we must re- 
member that the perspective of prophecy, in stating 
such cases, embraces all analogous ones, the divine 
dealings being self-consistent, and especially that great 
one, in which the words are most prominently ful- 
filled." 

X. The quotation of Isa. 45 : 23 at Rom. 14 : 11 
is adduced as another instance of misapplied Scripture. 
The New Testament writer is dissuading the Roman 
Christians from harsh and uncharitable judgments of 
one another. " But thou, why dost thou judge thy 
brother ? or thou, again, why dost thou set at nought 
thy brother ? for we shall all stand before the judgment 
seat of God. For it is written, 

As I live, saith the Lord, to me every knee shall bow, 
And every tongue shall confess to God. 



358 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

So then each one of us shall give account of himself 
to God." • 

The comment of Toy on the passage is as follows : 
" In Isaiah, God announces that all nations shall aban- 
don their idols and worship the God of Israel, bend 
the knee to him in token of allegiance, swear by him 
as their God. The apostle, laying the stress on the 
term ' confess ' (which, however, is not properly in the 
Hebrew), finds here a prediction ('for it is written ') of 
the last judgment ; we must not judge our brethren, says 
he, seeing we shall all be judged by God." It is im- 
plied in this comment that the apostle has misused his 
proof-text in three particulars: I. The text speaks of 
national allegiance to God ; and he makes it refer to 
the personal accountability of each individual. 2. He 
lays the stress of his argument on the word " confess," 
which the Hebrew does not contain. 3. He regards 
the text as a prediction of the last judgment, for he 
cites it with the formula, "for it is written." The first 
and second of these criticisms are groundless and the 
third is not cogent, as I shall now show. 

1. The text quoted says absolutely nothing about 
national allegiance, but speaks solely of individual sub- 
mission ; it speaks of " every knee " and " every tongue," 
not of every nation. Toy himself translates both the 
Hebrew and the Greek by these words ; nor does he 
tell us by what possible agency " every knee shall bow " 
can be made to mean " all nations shall bend the knee 
in token of allegiance " ; nor is there a syllable in the 
context to change or modify in any manner the plain 
and obvious significance of the words. 

2. There is just as little evidence of the second 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 359 

statement of Toy as of the first. The apostle does 
not lay stress on the term " confess " ; the stress of the 
thought is given to the words " every knee " and " every 
tongue"; for the assertion is that every individual is 
accountable to God for himself. Thus Alford, in sub- 
stance : " The stress is on ' of himself ' ; and the next 
verse refers back to it, laying the emphasis on 'one 
another.' The apostle here makes the accountability 
of each person to God a reason for the exercise of for- 
bearance and charity in judgment, and he is not think- 
ing specifically of the formal act of confession ; and it 
would make no difference if we should render the He- 
brew word ' swear ' instead of < confess.' ' 

3. The third assertion of Toy is little better founded 
than the first and second ; for it is by no means certain 
that the apostle finds in Isaiah " a prediction of the last 
judgment." It is held by many scholars that he an- 
nounces a proposition and sustains it by two arguments. 
The proposition which he announces is that we ought 
not to set ourselves up as judges of our brethren by 
indulging in harsh criticisms of them. The first argu- 
ment in support of this proposition is that "we shall 
all stand before the judgment seat of God," and that 
therefore he is the rightful judge of all. The second 
is that each person is responsible to God, and not to 
his fellows, since God says that to him " every knee 
shall bow." Each of these arguments is introduced 
by the word "for" : "for we shall all stand" ; "for it 
is written." This introduction of each of a series of 
arguments by the word "for " is common in the New 
Testament ; see Matt. 6 : 32, where two parallel argu^ 
ments are introduced in the same manner : " For after 



360 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

all these things do the Gentiles seek ; for your heavenly- 
Father knoweth that ye have need of all these things." 

But let us grant for a moment that the apostle cites 
the words to prove his preceding statement that " we 
shall all stand before the judgment seat of God," and 
with reference to the last judgment. In this case he 
does not wrest them from their original purport, but 
regards the prediction of the universal submission of 
men to God in the future progress of the human race 
as finding its ultimate and highest fulfillment at the last 
day, of which all previous fulfillments are but types 
and shadows. Toy himself frequently recognizes a 
principle of interpretation much like this. His com- 
ment on 1 Cor. 1 5 : 54, where the Apostle Paul quotes 
from Isa. 25 : 8, is a recognition of it. The phrase 
quoted is, " Death is swallowed up in victory." On 
which the critic says : " There is no question here of 
any death but the physical. But the prophetic vision 
of perfect life is fulfilled in the clearer teaching of 
Christ : it is in the consummation of the future life, 
says the apostle, that this word of Isaiah shall truly 
come to pass." Let us alter these words only enough 
to adapt them to the passage now immediately before 
us, and observe how well Toy can answer himself : 
"There is no question here of any submission to God 
but that which shall take place in the ordinary course 
of history. But the prophetic vision of perfect and 
universal submission is fulfilled in the clearer teaching 
of Christ ; it is at the last judgment, says the apostle, 
that this word of Isaiah shall truly come to pass." 

XL In 2 Cor. 8, the writer exhorts his readers to 
complete their work of raising money for the relief of 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 361 

the poor Christians of Jerusalem. He does this, he 
says, not that the Corinthians may be burdened and 
the Jewish Christians relieved, but that an equality of 
goods may be effected. He makes a graceful allusion 
to the history of the manna, well known to all readers 
of the Old Testament ; as God ordained of old that 
" he who gathered much had nothing over, and he who 
gathered little had no lack," so now in a time of spe- 
cial distress, the apostle says, it is the will of God that 
those who have abundance shall share their superfluity 
with those who have little, " that there may be equal- 
ity." This appeal to the Old Testament is for illustra- 
tion alone. 

Is there anything wrong in this use of the Old Tes- 
tament record ? Is it not such as is constantly found 
in all literatures ? It appears that even here, however, 
the objector interposes his criticism. Its character may 
be gathered from these words of Toy : " The apostle 
bases an exhortation to liberality on the equality of the 
distribution of the manna ; so, he says, it should be 
with brethren, those that have more supplying the lack 
of those who have less. Strictly interpreted, the com- 
parison does not hold ; there God is the author of the 
equality ; here, of inequality." No extended reply to 
this is necessary. The reader will readily go back to 
the thought of the apostle himself, that as of old, in 
gathering the manna, man made a temporary inequality, 
some securing much, and some little, so it is now in 
gathering riches ; and that, as of old God established 
equality, so now, in a time of special distress, he rec- 
ommends it, and seeks to establish it through the 
sympathy and voluntary charity of his people. 

2f 



362 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

XII. Kuenen and Toy object to Heb. 3 : 7-4 : n 
for its use of Ps. 95 : 7-1 1 : " Wherefore, even as the 
Holy Ghost "saith, 

To-day, if ye shall hear his voice, 

Harden not your hearts, as in the provocation, 

Like as in the day of the temptation in the wilderness, 

Wherewith your fathers tempted me by proving me, 

And saw my works forty years. 

Wherefore I was displeased with this generation, 

And said, They do always err in their heart : 

But they did not know my ways; 

As I sware in my wrath, 

They shall not enter into my rest." 

Then follows the well-known argument, to guard the 
readers of the epistle from the impression that the 
psalm could have no reference to them, and to warn 
them against " falling after the same example of unbe- 
lief." The criticisms of Kuenen may be summed up 
in a few brief sentences : 

1. The author of Hebrews refers the psalm to 
David (Heb. 4 : 7), but " it is beyond all doubt post- 
exilic." But the writer of Hebrews probably does not 
intend to attribute the psalm to David. His words 
are : " Saying in David " ; but this is merely a mode of 
designating the whole book of Psalms, to which David 
contributed largely. So Toy, Perowne, Jennings, Lowe, 
Ebrard, Beza, Dindorf, Schulz, Bohme, Bleek, Ellicott, 
Alford, and many others. We call the Psalms " the 
Psalms of David," without meaning to attribute every 
psalm to him. W r e have a book which we call " Shakes- 
peare," without attributing all its contents to the great 
dramatist ; nay, with the very decided conviction that 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 363 

certain portions of it could not have come from his 
pen. 

2. "The persons whom the poet addresses are his 
contemporaries ; but according to the writer to the He- 
brews, the psalm was written for the Christians of his 
own time." This is quite true. In the Scriptures God 
is teaching the world, and not merely a single people ; 
the ages, and not merely one age. He is immutable ; 
he " is no respecter of persons "; and hence the warn- 
ings and promises addressed to Israel by Moses and 
by the psalmist " were written for our admonition, upon 
whom the ends of the ages are come." 

3. "The rest or resting-place which the psalmist 
mentions can be none other than the land of Canaan ; 
and the oath sworn by God had exclusive reference to 
that land. But the writer of the epistle understands 
something else by the ' rest.' In the psalm God calls 
it ' my rest,' and hence the writer of the epistle seeks 
to connect it with the rest into which the Creator en- 
tered after finishing his works " (Gen. 2 : 1-3). This 
is the chief objection, and it merits our chief attention. 

The theme of the whole passage is the peril of apos- 
tasy and the reward of steadfastness : " Whose house 
are we, if we hold fast our boldness and the glorying 
of our hope firm unto the end." The movement of 
the argument is stated thus by Dr. Timothy Dwight : l 

In the development of the proof given in these verses there 
are apparently four steps. 1 . The rest of God was established 
by him at the end of the creation of the world. 2. This rest of 
God was not entered by the Israelites of Moses' time ; it re- 
mained, therefore, open for others. 3. It was not entered, in 

1 In the American edition of Meyer. 



364 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

the full sense, in the time of Joshua ; it was reserved for men 
who should follow afterward. 4. It was not entered even in 
David's time, as indicated by the very exhortation of this psalm, 
which was still read in the days present to the writer and his 
readers. The arrangement of the steps is not in the order of 
direct succession, but according to the incidental suggestions of 
each sentence as introducing the next. 

The danger of apostasy is shown by that part of the 
psalm which recites the rebellion of the chosen people 
and their death in the wilderness. With this we come 
to the end of the third chapter, and find no difficulty. 
The fourth chapter opens with the danger of apostasy, 
but passes rapidly to the reward of steadfastness. God 
swore, saying, " Rebellious Israel shall not enter into 
my rest." The oath is recorded in Num. 14 : 28-30. 
He meant by his "rest" the land of Canaan; but did 
he mean nothing more ? Did he not mean also all the 
earthly and heavenly blessings of which that land was a 
symbol, the rest of faith here, and the rest of glorious 
sight hereafter ? The whole church in her prayers, her 
hymns, her sermons, has always looked upon Canaan as 
an image of higher and better things ; and this is not 
the result of mere accident or fancy. It was the 
thought of God before it became the thought of his 
people ; and he engraved it upon his word that he 
might the better engrave it upon their minds. 

But further, the psalmist implies that there was the 
same rest of God in his day into which the obedient 
should enter. What was that rest? Canaan only? 
No one has been hardy enough to say so, for the peo- 
ple were there already. Toy seeks to escape the per- 
plexity by denying that the psalmist implies the exist- 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 365 

ence of the rest of God in his own day. He says : 
"The author," of Hebrews, " assumes that the last 
verse of the psalm contains a promise, as if it were 
thus to be construed : ' O Israel, your fathers failed to 
enter into my rest because of their disobedience, but 
do you take warning to-day by them, so that you may 
not fail to gain the promised rest.' But the psalm 
merely recites a fact of the past." On the contrary, 
the closing part of the psalm is meaningless, unless it 
implies that the peril of destruction still exists for apos- 
tates, as also the blessing of divine rest for the faithful. 
The psalm is one of the so-called liturgical psalms ; 
that is, it was read constantly in the synagogue service. 
But why was this, unless for its implied warning and 
promise ? It is often read and sung in our churches, 
but always with the same thought and for the same ad- 
monition and encouragement. Let it be its own wit- 
ness : few can read or hear it without finding in its clos- 
ing words an awful warning and a glorious hope for 
themselves. 

Thus far the author of Hebrews is certainly right in 
his interpretation. But he proceeds further. The 
" rest " spoken of in the psalm was the land of Canaan ; 
but it was also more, for it could still be offered to Is- 
rael after the days of Joshua and the conquest. What 
was it then ? The psalmist represents God as calling 
it "my rest." In the earlier books of the Old Testa- 
ment God had spoken to the people of a rest, as in 
Deut. 12:9; but he had not called it "my rest." The 
new form of words must probably denote some new 
thought. And, as revelation is a progressive unfolding 
of truth, it would be a higher and fuller thought. It 



366 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

was the rest of God on which he entered after the work 
of creation, and to which he invited his people when 
he " blessed the seventh day and hallowed it," the spir- 
itual refreshment of men by faith in their Father, who 
provides for all their toils a balm of holy communion 
here and a reward of celestial bliss hereafter. Moulton 1 
has well said : 

Though the mention of the oath of God is derived from Num. 
14 : 28-30, the language of the historian is significantly changed ; 
for ' ' ye shall not come into the land, ' ' we read, ' « they shall not 
enter into my rest." True, their land could be spoken of as 
their "rest and inheritance" (Deut. 12 : 9), but the language 
which the psalmist chooses is at all events susceptible of a much 
higher and wider meaning, and may have been used in this ex- 
tended sense long before the psalmist's age. That verse eight 
when placed beside verse eleven shows the higher meaning to 
have been present in the psalmist's thought, and implies that 
the offer of admission to the rest of God was still made, it seems 
unreasonable to doubt. As the people learned through ages of 
experience and training to discern the deeper and more spiritual 
meaning that lay in the promises of the King and Son of David, 
so was it with other promises which at first might seem to have 
only a temporal significance. If these considerations are well 
founded, it follows that we have no right to look on the argu- 
ment of this section as an " accommodation " or a mere applica- 
tion of Scripture : the Christian preacher does but fill up the out- 
line which the prophet had drawn. 

The development of this higher view in Israel is 
sketched thus by Bleek : 2 

More and more, as time passed, the consciousness pre- 
vailed, especially with the more clear-sighted and devout Israel- 
ites, that even after the possession of the land, the people, owing 

1 In Ellicott's " New Testament Commentary," Vol. III., p. 297. 

2 " Der Brief an die Hebraer," Vol. II., p. 446. 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 367 

to their perversity, never became partakers of the rest and hap- 
piness in such fullness as the promises from the beginning held 
out to them. With this became connected the conviction that 
even the divine promise of the ' ' inheritance ' ' had not yet found 
its complete fulfillment, so far as its essential elements are con- 
cerned, and stood yet in the future. Hence the expression "to 
inherit the land" used in the original promise, came to be re- 
garded, even after their longing altogether ceased to be distinctly 
connected with the possession of the land of Canaan, as a desig- 
nation of the whole sum of the future great salvation for which 
the offspring of Abraham waited, in accordance with the promise 
made to their forefathers. 

Kurtz 1 also finds in the psalm the fuller meaning 
which the New Testament ascribes to it. 

In order that there may be no lack of clearness in 
this discussion, I now produce at length, though at 
some risk of repetition, the objections which Toy brings 
forward to the use of the passage made by the author 
of the Epistle to the Hebrews : 

The psalm passage (which is a simple exhortation to the Jew- 
ish people not to harden their hearts as their ancestors did) is 
cited in the epistle for a double purpose ; first, as a warning to 
Christians against unbelief and hardening of heart (3 : 12-19) ; 
and then, to show (4 : 1-1 1) that the rest spoken of in the psalm 
is not the rest of Canaan, but the sabbatism or sabbath-rest, 
the spiritual and physical repose and peace which shall be the 
lot of the followers of Christ when he shall come, at the end of 
the present age, to establish his kingdom forever (compare 10 : 
36-39). This conclusion is drawn from the fact that the state- 
ment concerning " rest " in the psalm (in " David "4:7, where 
"David" seems to be merely a designation of the book of 
Psalms) was made after God instituted the weekly sabbath-rest 
(see next quotation), and also after Joshua had settled the peo- 
ple in Canaan (4 : 8), so that the "rest" here promised could 

1 "Der Brief an die Hebraer," p. 138. 



368 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

only be the Messianic rest. The author assumes that the last 
verse contains a promise, as if it were thus to be construed ; 
" O Israel, your fathers failed to enter into my rest because of 
their disobedience, but do you take warning to-day by them, so 
that you may not fail to gain the promised rest. ' ' But the psalm 
merely cites a fact of the past, and affirms the failure to enter 
Canaan only of that one unbelieving generation (in accordance 
with Deut, 1 : 34, 35, on which verses 10, 11 of the psalm are 
based), while the new generation, together with Caleb and Joshua, 
did enter on the enjoyment of the land and the promise (Deut. 
1 : 36-39). Our author leaves the historical relations entirely 
out of view, and uses the words for his exhortation and argu- 
ment without regard to their proper meaning. His exhortation 
is religiously elevated and useful, but his exegesis is faulty. 

Briefly, then, the objections of Toy are two : 

1. The author of the epistle regards the quotation 
as implying that there was in the psalmist's day, long 
after the institution of the Sabbath and the conquest 
of Canaan, a rest into which the people of God might 
enter or might fail to enter ; whereas the quotation 
implies no such thing, but refers solely to the rest 
achieved by Joshua ages before the psalm was written. 

2. The author of the epistle supposes that the rest, 
whose existence he holds to be thus implied in the 
psalm, is the rest which the people of God shall enter 
at the second coming of Christ in glory. 

I shall now show that the exegesis of the author of 
the epistle, instead of being faulty, is that which the 
passages involved render necessary. 

1. To regard the language of the psalmist concern- 
ing the " rest " promised by God as merely historical 
is to forget that it was written for a moral purpose, 
that it is an incentive to holy living, that it is an appeal 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 369 

to hope as well as to fear. The psalm is not history; 
it is an application of history to the religious life as a 
motive. No Hebrew of old would doubt this when he 
heard it read ; and no Christian to-day doubts it. 
Holding this view of the psalm as correct, the reader 
of it will instinctively find in the closing words the 
teaching that, as the Israelites of old missed the rest 
of God, so the people of every age may miss it, while, 
on the other hand, those who avoid the sin of ancient 
Israel may yet enter into it. The psalm was often read 
in the synagogues of the Jews, and must always have 
carried this thought to the hearers, as it does to-day 
when it is read or sung in our churches. If it were a 
mere recitation of history, without a purpose of en- 
couragement, as well as of admonition, it would not 
have found so large a place in the public worship either 
of Jews or Christians. That the writer of the epistle 
is correct in his view of the psalm is held by all con- 
servative interpreters. 

2. The statement that the writer of the epistle sup- 
posed the psalmist to refer to the rest of the saints to 
be established by Christ at his second coming, has no 
support whatever. It is the mere assertion of certain 
expositors, whom Toy follows. The appeal to Heb. 10 : 
36-39 proves nothing as to the meaning of this pas- 
sage, and its production in support of the proposed in- 
terpretation only shows in what desperate straits the 
interpretation is. Seven chapters separate the passage 
from the verses cited to illustrate it, and the subjects 
of discussion are changed many times in the interval. 
Moreover, the writer of the epistle uses the present 
tense when he speaks of this rest : " We which have 



3/0 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

believed do enter into that rest." Some critics, as 
Stuart says, have been so troubled with the present 
tense of "do enter" that they have changed it to the 
future without warrant. Still further, believers in 
Christ are regarded by the writer as having already 
entered into the rest, and to be in danger of " seeming 
to have come short of it." It is evident from these 
considerations that the rest is a universal spiritual ex- 
perience of those who believe, that it is past, present, 
and future ; past, in the experience of all in every age 
who have believed ; present, in the experience of 
all who now believe, whether they are on earth or in 
heaven ; and future, as all the blessed spiritual expe- 
riences of Christians in this life are foregleams of "the 
glory to be revealed." This view is sustained by the 
great majority of expositors. 

XIII. The quotation from Jer. 31 : 31-34 in Heb. 
8 : 8—1 3 and 10 : 15-18, leads Toy to write: 

"The epistle assumes the identity of Jeremiah's 'new cove- 
nant ' with Christianity, and rightly in so far as the inward obe- 
dience therein prescribed is concerned. But, at the same time, 
it is true that the prophet held this higher covenant to be made 
with Israel as a nation, and that he meant by it not a literal 
abrogation of the existing customs of sacrifice, but only the in- 
fusion of a better spirit into the national life with all its outward 
forms." "The epistle regards the passage as announcing the 
abrogation of the Levitical system of many sacrifices in favor of 
the one sacrifice which Christ makes once for all." 

So much of this comment as relates to the abroga- 
tion of Jewish sacrifices is beside the mark, for the 
New Testament writer does not quote the passage as 
asserting this. In the first quotation of the passage 



ILLOGICAL REASONING 37 I 

he shows by it simply that God contemplated the abro- 
gation of the Sinaitic covenant and the institution of 
a better one, whose laws should be written on the mind 
and heart, and says nothing about the Mosaic sacri- 
fices. The second quotation is adduced as a proof, but 
not an assertion, that the Mosaic sacrifices, according 
to the purposes of God, were to be done away. The 
passage asserts that under the new covenant the law 
of God should be written on the minds and hearts of 
men, and that God should " remember their sins and 
their iniquities no more." Having cited this statement, 
the writer proceeds to infer from it the abrogation of 
sacrifices : " Now where remission of these is, there is 
no more offering for sin." The inference is logical. 
Since men are to be fully assured of the free pardon 
of all their sins, there will be no need for them to 
bring daily sacrifices for sin, testifying thus their fear 
that it is not pardoned : since there is to be no more 
occasion for sacrifices, there are to be no more sacri- 
fices. But the writer of the epistle does not represent 
the prophet as drawing this inference ; it is his own ; 
and he does not write a word that can justify the critic 
in attributing to him a wrong view of the passage 
which he quotes. In logic there is no distinction more 
important than that of a statement and the inferences 
which may be drawn from it, or which necessarily fol- 
low it. The writer of the epistle observes this distinc- 
tion with scrupulous care, attributing to the prophet 
simply what he says, and then showing the necessary, 
bearing of the prophetic testimony upon the Christian 
argument. 



XI 

RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 

THE opinion is widely diffused that Christ and the 
apostles quoted and interpreted the Old Testa- 
ment exactly as did the rabbis of their time. Various 
scholars have labored to establish this theory by ex- 
hibiting the quotations of the New Testament and of 
the rabbis in parallels. The most thorough of these 
writers is Dopke, who is often referred to as having 
left nothing to be said on either side of the subject. 
We must not suppose, however, that Dopke was moved 
by unbelief. On the contrary, he regarded his work 
as a product of faith. For Christ and the apostles to 
use the Jewish Scriptures precisely as the rabbis did, 
was not only blameless, but praiseworthy, and indeed 
necessary. It was not their business to set forth any 
theory of inspiration or any rules of interpretation. 
They found certain writings among their people ; these 
were regarded by all as the voice of God ; and, being 
interpreted in certain ways, seemed to contain predic- 
tions of a Messiah who should reign in a temporal 
glory like that of David or Solomon. Christ and the 
apostles, therefore, were obliged to accept the Hebrew 
Scriptures, and to show that the passages cited as pre- 
dictions of a political Messiah really portrayed such a 
Messiah as Jesus of Nazareth. They were obliged 
also to conform to the methods of interpretation com- 
372 



RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 2>73 

monly received ; for had they proposed new and cor- 
rect canons of exegesis their gospel would have been 
rejected at once. Such is the theory of Dopke, and, 
as the reader will readily infer, it enables him to ex- 
hibit equally the wisdom and the folly of rabbinic in- 
terpretation, to search out what he regards as parallel 
with it in the New Testament, and to present this ma- 
terial with a certain innocent gratification, even when 
it is made to appear illogical, insincere, or even idiotic. 
That the writers of the New Testament quoted the 
Old in a strictly rabbinic manner is demonstrated, ac- 
cording to Dopke, by nine or ten different kinds of 
proof. I shall now review these so-called proofs, and 
show that I have already answered them, in so far as 
they are worthy of serious attention, in the preceding 
chapters of this book. They may be classified as fol- 
lows : 

1. Verbal alterations of the passage quoted, in order 
to fit it to its new connection, or for some other rhe- 
torical purpose. Dopke adduces six instances of this 
kind from the rabbis. I have adduced thirteen from 
the Greek classics alone, and have limited the number 
simply for want of space. 

2. Fragmentary quotations, where the whole pas- 
sage is intended. Dopke has produced eleven of these 
from rabbinic literature. I have produced seventeen 
from the Greek and Latin classics, with evidences of a 
much larger number for which I have no room, and 
have shown that such quotations are common to all 
literatures. I have shown also that in the New Testa- 
ment they are always based upon a context appropriate 
to the subject under discussion. 

2g 



374 ' QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

3. Quotation of a passage in full when only a part 
of it is necessary. But one rabbinic example of this 
kind is given. I have found it difficult to suppose that 
Dopke is serious here ; it has seemed to me that his 
argument at this point can be accounted for best on 
the supposition that he has wished to provide for the 
diversion of his readers. Every author who quotes 
much, often takes from others more than is required for 
his purpose, whether his desire is to prove a proposi- 
tion or only to ornament his pages. The rabbis are so 
little peculiar in this respect that the reader need only 
turn a leaf or two of Plato or of Cicero, of Burke or of 
Addison, to come upon numerous instances of the 
same kind. 

4. Composite quotations. Dopke has collected twenty- 
four examples of these from the rabbis. I have pre- 
sented eleven from the Greek classics alone, and have 
shown that they are abundant in other literatures. 

5. Quotations of the sense of Scripture without the 
language. Dopke presents eleven rabbinic examples 
of these. I have shown by fourteen examples that the 
practice was common in antiquity, and not rabbinic in 
any special sense. 

6. Quotations from secular authors, or from the 
maxims of ordinary life, not attributed to the Old Tes- 
tament, but to their proper secular sources. Again 
one is tempted to think that Dopke has thrown in 
this section for the amusement of his readers. The 
rabbis quote the sayings of ordinary people ; therefore 
when the Apostle Paul quotes from the Greek poets, 
he is quoting as a rabbi ! Let us extend the reason- 
ing a step farther, and prove that when Plato quotes 



RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 375 

from Homer, or Webster from Milton, he quotes as a 
rabbi. 

7. Exegetical changes of the words quoted. Dopke 
has twelve instances of these from the rabbis. Most 
of them are of a sort that is not found at all in the 
New Testament. I have produced a larger number of 
instances from ordinary English literature, of the same 
sort with those which occur in the New Testament, 
and have shown that when Christ and the apostles 
alter any text in this way they do but bring out its real 
meaning, instead of putting a new meaning into it. 

8. Allegory. Dopke begins the third section of his 
discussion of this subject as follows : " That the alle- 
gorical interpretation of the Old Testament was 
fully accepted by the writers of the New is acknowl- 
edged by all, and hence needs no special proof." If 
any one should doubt the meaning of this sweeping 
declaration, he need only read the context in which it 
occurs. We have there a sketch of the allegorical system 
of biblical interpretation as adopted by such men as 
Philo and Origen and by the Jewish rabbis in general. 
I have shown in my chapter on the allegories of the 
New Testament that the apostles and evangelists as- 
sume the strictly historical character of those portions 
of the Old Testament which they use for the construc- 
tion of allegory, that their method of interpreting it is 
at a world-wide distance from the vagaries of Philo and 
Origen and the Jewish rabbis, and that they construct 
their allegories exactly as the Greek and Roman and 
English and German authors construct theirs. 

9. Dopke means by the word " allegory " not only 
that which is commonly understood when it is em- 



376 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

ployed, but also all double reference of all kinds. His 
argument concerning double reference may be briefly 
stated as follows : The allegorical interpreters of the 
Bible, including the rabbis, find the element of double 
reference, and even of multiple reference, in the Old 
Testament ; Christ and his apostles find the element 
of double reference in the Old Testament ; hence 
Christ and his apostles, in interpreting the Old Testa- 
ment, borrow their system of interpretation from the 
rabbis. 

Such is the argument. It is defective, first, because 
it does not present a fair statement of the premises ; 
and secondly, because, even if its statement of the 
premises is accepted as fair, the conclusion will not fol- 
low. The argument, stated fairly, is this : The rabbis 
find a double reference in every part of the Old Testa- 
ment, and a multiple reference in many parts, and 
search for it in puerile and silly extremes. Christ and 
the apostles recognize a double reference only in par- 
ticular places, and especially in Messianic passages ; 
and they search for it in a manner worthy of its intrin- 
sic beauty, dignity, and utility ; therefore Christ and 
the apostles borrow their system of interpretation from 
the rabbis. The real premises are as I have here 
stated them, and the reader perceives at once how little 
support they give to the conclusion. 

That there is all this wide difference between the 
rabbis and the writers of the New Testament in their 
treatment of the element of double reference in the 
Scriptures, is shown by Dopke himself better than by 
any other person. It is Dopke who speaks as follows : 
"The Jewish writers, in their employment of a passage 



RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 377 

of Scripture, never regard its connection. I say never, 
lest some one should suppose that their neglect is 
limited to oratorical or allegorical uses." 

It is Dopke who analyzes their methods of finding 
the secondary reference of Scripture, and distinguishes 
eight of them, all arbitrary, violent, irreverent, and all 
illustrated by examples uniformly silly, driveling, and 
idiotic, in an incredible degree. 

It is Dopke who closes his discussion of double ref- 
erence with the statement that "the writers of the 
New Testament, though many defects of the Jewish 
theology still cleave to them, make on the whole a far 
wiser use of the Old Testament than the rabbis," and 
that "every unprejudiced scholar must feel himself 
constrained to admit this." 

But even were the rabbis correct in their use of 
double reference, it would not follow that the apostles 
had borrowed from them. I have shown in another chap- 
ter that double reference abounds in all literatures, an- 
cient and modern. All competent critics recognize it. 
The German poets and essayists are especially fond of 
it ; and had Dopke read the literature of his own land 
with a little attention, he would have discovered it 
there, and would not have pronounced it a figment of 
rabbinic fancy. The apostles did not learn from the 
rabbis to imagine its existence in the Old Testament ; 
they discovered it there for themselves, as every stu- 
dent of every literature discovers it for himself. 

I have now stated in outline the whole argument of 
Dopke and his followers, who assure us that " the writ- 
ers of the New Testament quote and interpret the 
Old exactly as the rabbis do." The argument in brief 



3J8 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

is this : " The rabbis do certain things. The writers 
of the New Testament do things in some respects 
similar. Therefore the writers of the New Testa- 
ment are disciples of the rabbis in this matter." 
But the conclusion does not follow from the premises ; 
for we have still to ask whether the rabbis are the 
only persons besides the writers of the New Testa- 
ment who do the things in question ? Or are they 
not done also by all writers of their time, Jewish, 
Greek, and Latin ? Indeed, are they not done by all 
writers of all times, because natural and spontaneous 
to the literary instinct ? 

A distinguished man relates the following anecdote 
in a personal letter to me. A certain king once pro- 
pounded a difficult question to an association for the ad- 
vancement of science which met in his capital. He 
stated that a babe had been born with one side of its 
face black, and asked for a solution of the mystery. A 
committee was appointed to consider the case, and 
framed a satisfactory theory. When the report was 
submitted to him, the kinsr thanked the committee for 
their labors, and said that he was encouraged to request 
them to investigate one mystery more. The other side 
of the babe's face also was black : would they give him 
a theory to explain this ? 

The rabbis do certain things ; and the apostles do 
certain similar things. We ask Dbpke and his follow- 
ers to explain the action of the apostles, and they an- 
swer that these men were disciples and imitators of the 
rabbis. We then tell the same men that all writers of 
the apostolic age, and of earlier generations, do many 
of these same things ; and that all writers of all ages 



RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 379 

and all lands do many others of these same things ; and 
we ask them to explain the action of the apostles in 
the light of this new statement. A good scientific 
hypothesis will consider all the facts of a given case, 
and not merely one-tenth of them. 

The New Testament has a certain kind of rabbinic 
coloring, because its writers were Hebrews, like the 
rabbis ; because they had been brought up under the 
instruction, or at least the influence, of the rabbis ; and 
because again, in common with the rabbis, they sur- 
charged their books with expressions borrowed from 
the Old Testament. But the resemblance is chiefly in 
appearance ; when the reader pierces below the surface, 
he finds but little of it ; and it vanishes wholly when 
he searches in the New Testament for the obscurities, 
the superstitions, the cabalisms, the puerilities, the ab- 
surdities, the insanities, which stare at him from every 
page of the rabbinic interpretations of the sacred 
writings. 

I do not stand alone in speaking thus severely of the 
rabbis, and in contrasting, rather than comparing, their 
writings with the New Testament, but am sustained by 
critics from all the chief schools of interpretation. 
Thus Ebrard says, 1 representing the orthodoxy of Ger- 
many : 

In general, it is a very superficial and shallow view that 
would lead us all at once to consider the use of Old Testament 
passages in the New Testament as parallel with the exegetico- 
dogmatic method of argumentation pursued by the rabbis. The 
apostles and apostolic men have indeed exhibited in their epis- 
tles such a freedom from the spirit of Jewish tradition, such an 

1 " Epistle to the Hebrews," l : 4-14. 



380 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

originality and youthful vigor of new life, such a fineness and 
depth of psychological and historical intuition, and the whole 
system of Christianity in its freshness and originality stands in 
such contrast to the old, insipid, pre-messianic Judaism, and ap- 
pears so thoroughly a new structure from the foundation resting 
on the depths of Old Testament revelation, and not a mere en- 
largement of the Pharisaico- rabbinical self-styled Judaism, that 
it were indeed wonderful, if the same apostolic men had, in 
their interpretation of the Old Testament passages, held them- 
selves dependent on the Jewish exegesis and hermeneutical 
method. In reality, however, the apostolic exegesis of the Old 
Testament stands in directest opposition to the Jewish-rabbinical, 
so that one can scarcely imagine a more complete and diamet- 
rical difference. In the rabbinic interpretation it is always sin- 
gle words, studiously separated from the context, from which in- 
ferences, of course arbitrary, are drawn. The rabbis affirm, for 
example, that when a man lies three days in the grave, his en- 
trails are torn from his body and cast in his face ; because it is 
written in Mai. 2:3: "I will also cast the filth of your festi- 
vals in your face." Nay, the later rabbinism, as a direct result 
of this arbitrary procedure, went the length of drawing infer- 
ences even from single letters. They taught, for example, the 
transmigration of the soul, and that the souls of men ever con- 
tinue to live in men ; thus the life of Cain passed into Jethro, 
his spirit into Korah, and his soul into the Egyptians, because 
two. words are found at Gen. 4 : 24 containing the first letters of 
the words Jethro, Korah, and Egyptians. The genuine Phari- 
saical spirit which forms the basis of all this is that the letter as 
such is what is most significant. The New Testament writers, 
on the contrary, as we have seen in reference to Heb. 1 : 6-9, 
and as we see more and more as we proceed with the epistle, 
drew all their arguments from the spirit of the passages consid- 
ered in their connection. Nothing at all is inferred from the 
mere letters of the passages quoted. 

Reuss may be selected as an example of the more 
skeptical school. He writes : * 

1 " History of the New Testament," 530. 



RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 381 

From the Christian standpoint, and in view of their respective 
objects, purposes, and methods of procedure, the superiority of 
the apostolic hermeneutics to the Jewish, especially the Alexan- 
drian, cannot be disputed. Nor, as soon as Christianity and 
Judaism are recognized as different stages of development of the 
same revelation, can there be any debate as to the justice of the 
fundamental principle of the apostolic hermeneutics, though 
there may doubtless be differences of opinion as to the limits of 
its application and the degree to which the apostles were con- 
scious of the grounds of their exposition. 

Even Dopke admits that "the apostles disdained 
many of the ridiculous arts of Jewish hermeneutics," 
and recognizes "with praise the freedom of mind with 
which they struck off that fetter." These expressions 
of Dopke, and others of the same tenor which I have 
already cited, are inconsistent with the theory of inter- 
pretation which he holds and defends ; they seem to be 
wrung from a reluctant mind ; and they are therefore 
of the greater force as testimony against the rabbis 
and in favor of the New Testament. 

The rabbis, in quoting the Old Testament, altered 
the text arbitrarily and freely, if it suited their pur- 
pose, not in order to bring out some meaning couched 
in it, but to make it express a meaning wholly foreign 
to it ; and the passages thus altered are used for proof 
as voices of divine authority. Changes of the former 
kind are made in the quotations of all literatures, as 
we have seen ; they are paraphrases. But changes of 
the latter kind are preferred by the rabbis. They were 
conscious of no wrong in this thing, but carried it off 
bravely, often announcing what they were doing, as with 
the phrase, "Thou shalt not read thus, but thus " ; or, 
" Take away from the Scripture ; add to it ; and so ex- 



382 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

plain it " ; or, " The text is changed." x Sometimes the 
vowel-pointing is altered, so as to give a different word ; 
at other times the consonants are not spared ; at other 
times the letters are preserved, but their order is 
changed so as to produce such words as the commenta- 
tor desired ; at other times a word is divided so as to 
make two, with meanings wholly foreign to the origi- 
nal expression ; and at other times, finally, the order 
of the words is changed so as to make a new sense. 
The Jewish belief that every letter and every syllable 
of every word of Scripture is freighted with a divine 
significance of its own, and that the Scriptures mean 
all that can be gotten out of them by any process what- 
ever, permitted the rabbis to employ these methods 
without the consciousness of irreverence or of violence. 
The New Testament has been tortured to make it con- 
fess itself guilty of these practices ; but in vain. No 
trace of them can be found in it. 

When the rabbis connect text with text, and compare 
passage with passage, their inferences, to quote from 
Dopke, are " senseless," and their conclusions are drawn 
from the most "accidental resemblances of words." 
This, be it observed, is the rule, or rather the universal 
custom, and not the exception. Numerous illustrative 
instances are given by Dopke, who exclaims, at the con- 
clusion of one of them, and that by no means the 
worst: "What a monstrous bungling of deductions." 
I cite here one of his examples : " From whence is it 
certain that God wears the phylactery ? From Isa. 
62 : 8, where it is said : ' The Lord hath sworn by his 

1 1 am here following Dopke, " Hermeneutik," 84. Surenhusius, 59-70, 
has illustrated the practice at greater length. 



RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 383 

right hand, and by the arm of his strength.' The 
'right hand' signifies the law, according to Deut. 
33 : 2 : 'At his right hand was a fiery law unto them.' 
The ' arm of his strength ' signifies the phylactery, for 
it is written, 'The Lord will give strength unto his 
people.' " 

Perhaps the following additional instances of rab- 
binic interpretation, taken almost at random from 
Dopke, may be sufficient to show the reader what 
critics mean when they tell us that the apostles adopted 
the Jewish hermeneutics current in their own day : 

1. The law given through Moses is so expressed 
that a thing may be explained as clean for forty-nine 
different reasons, and as unclean for forty-nine different 
reasons ; because there is a word at Cant. 2 : 4, the 
letters of which make the number forty-nine. 

2. According to the opinion of some, each sentence 
of the Scriptures is so full of meanings that it may be 
explained in six hundred thousand different ways. 

3. At Zech. 11:7 the prophet says that he took 
two staves, and called one Beauty and the other Bands, 
and thus fed the flock, with these two shepherd-rods 
in his hands. The staff called Beauty signified the 
learned Jews of Palestine, who answered questions 
courteously, while the staff called Bands represented 
the learned Jews of Babylon, who were forever trying 
to defeat one another in religious disputation. 

4. In Deut. 21 : 18-21 is the law authorizing the 
parents of an incorrigible son to bring him for punish- 
ment to the elders. But this privilege is denied to the 
parents if one of them has lost a hand, because it is 
said that they must " lay hold " of the boy ; or if one 



384 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

is lame, because it is said that they must " bring him 
out " ; or if one is dumb, because they " must speak " 
the accusation ; or if one is blind, because they must 
say, "This our son," so being able to designate him 
with assurance. 

5. When the living say anything of a dead person, 
he moves his lips in the grave ; for it is written in 
Cant. 7:9: " Causing the lips of the sleeping to 
speak." The real subject of the quotation is the 
effect of wine. 

6. When the blessed God comes into a synagogue 
and does not find ten persons there, he is immediately 
angry ; for it is written at Isa. 50 : 2 : " Wherefore 
when I came was there no man ? " 

7. It is written in Dan. 9:21: "The man Gabriel, 
whom I had seen in the vision at the beginning, flew 
to me in his flight." Because the words "flew" and 
"flight" are both employed, it is shown that Gabriel 
made two flights, pausing to rest between them. 

8. In Exod. 1 5 we have the song of Moses after the 
passage of the Red Sea ; the sixteenth verse of which 
is as follows : 

Terror and dread falleth upon them; 

By the greatness of thine arm they are still as a stone; 

Till thy people pass over, O Jehovah, 

Till thy people pass over which thou hast purchased. 

According to the Jewish interpretation, the first time 
the phrase "till thy people pass over" is used, it refers 
to the entrance of Israel into Canaan under Joshua; 
and the second time to the entrance under Ezra and 
Zerubbabel. 



RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 385 

9. In Ps. I : 5 are the words : 

Therefore the wicked shall not stand in the judgment, 
Nor sinners in the congregation of the righteous. 

By "the wicked" here are meant the people who per- 
ished in the flood ; and by "sinners" the inhabitants 
of Sodom and Gomorrah. 

10. It is asked whether sin reigns in men from their 
conception, or only from their birth, and it is decided 
that the latter view is correct, because it is written : 
" Sin coucheth at the door." 

11. In Deut. 23 : 13 is the direction that the man 
shall dig in the soil without the camp and cover his ex- 
crement. Rabbi Kappara changes one of the words 
in this passage, and thus interprets it as a command to 
put the fingers in the ears when one hears bad words. 

12. In Gen. 1 : 2 it is said that the spirit, or wind, 
of God moved upon the face of the waters. There- 
fore he who would not be troubled with wind in his 
stomach must drink his wine mixed with water. 

13. In Gen. 24 : 1 5 it is said that Rebekah came out 
with a pitcher on her shoulder. Therefore a woman 
who would avoid the corpulence that sometimes follows 
child-birth must drink her wine mixed with unfer- 
mented juice of the grape. There are some obscure 
resemblances of sound at the basis of this sagacious 
interpretation. 

14. The days of the Messiah shall last forty years, 
because it is said in Ps. 95 : 10: "Forty years long 
was I grieved with that generation." 

The days of the Messiah shall last seventy years, 

2 H 



386 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

because it is said in Isa. 23 : 15 : "Tyre shall be for- 
gotten seventy years." 

The days of the Messiah shall last four hundred 
years, because it is said in Ps. 90 : 1 5 : " Make us glad 
according to the days wherein thou hast afflicted us;" 
and in Gen. 15 : 13 : "They shall afflict them four 
hundred years." 

The days of the Messiah shall be seven thousand 
years ; because it is said in Isa. 62 : 5 : " As the bride- 
groom rejoiceth over the bride, so shall thy God re- 
joice over thee." The marriage festivities lasted seven 
days, and this period was considered in a special sense 
the joy of the man. But a thousand years with God 
are as one day. Hence the conclusion as to the length 
of the Messianic reign. 

When our Lord came into the world, he found these 
inanities prevalent among the Jewish people. The 
Gospels show us in many places how his heart burned 
with indignation that men were fed on such husks. In- 
stead of adopting "the exegesis of his time," he de- 
nounced it. To the Sadducees he said: "Ye do err, 
not knowing the Scriptures." To the scribes and Phar- 
isees he said : " Ye have made void the word of God 
because of your tradition." To the lawyers he said : 
" Woe unto you lawyers ! for ye took away the key of 
knowledge : ye entered not in yourselves ; and them 
that were entering in ye hindered." Nor did he fail to 
impart to his followers the incomparable treasures of 
truth which he discovered in the sacred writings : "Be- 
ginning from Moses and all the prophets, he interpreted 
to them in all the scriptures the things concerning him- 
self." Moreover, he added to these lessons a special 



RABBINIC INTERPRETATION 387 

gift of discernment : " Then opened he their mind, 
that they might understand the Scriptures." We have 
the results of this instruction and enlightenment in 
the New Testament, whose writers expound the Old 
with singular breadth, penetration, profundity, and spir- 
ituality. 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES 



PAGE 

Genesis 1 : 2 87, 3S5 

Genesis 2 : 1-3 363 

Genesis 4:7 3S5 

Genesis 4: 24 380 

Genesis 9 : 27 170 

Genesis 12 : 3 16, 92 

Genesis 12 : 2 254 

Genesis 12: 14-17 254 

Genesis 13:15 260 

Genesis 14: 18 124 

Genesis 15 : 1-7 252 

Genesis 15 : 5 254 

Genesis 15: 13 386 

Genesis 17 : 5 252, 253 

Genesis 17 : 7, 8 260, 264 

Genesis 17 : 8 264 

Genesis 17:19 90,101 

Genesis 18 : 5 59 

Genesis 18 : 14 90, 101 

Genesis 18 : 18 92 

Genesis 19 : 26 124 

Genesis 21 : 1-3 341 

Genesis 22 : 16, 17 269 

Genesis 22 : 18 16 

Genesis 24 : 15 285 

Genesis 24: 16 287 

Genesis 25 : 23 350 

Genesis 27: 13 59 

Genesis 28: 12 244 

Genesis 30 : 2 90 

Genesis 32 : 25, 31 101 

Genesis 35 : 19, 20 297, 298 

Genesis 42 : 16 59 

Genesis 43,44,45 292 

Exodus 3 : 6 337 

Exodus 9 : 16 27 

Exodus 12 : 46 247 



PAGE 

Exodus 13 : 2 „ 77 

Exodus 15: 16 384 

Exodus 17 : 12 345 

Exodus 20 30 

Exodus 21 : 32 313 

Exodus 22 : 16, 17 287 

Exodus 23 : 19 253 

Exodus 27 : 20 59 

Exodus 34 : 26 258 

Exodus 34 : 28 30 

Leviticus 18 : 1-5 43 

Leviticus 21 : 14 287 

Leviticus 22 : 28 25S 

Leviticus 24 : 2 59 

Leviticus 26 : 11, 12 58, 92 

Numbers 5 : 2, 3 101 

Numbers 6 : 9 90 

Numbers 9 :12 ~ 247 

Numbers 11 : 13, 22 100 

Numbers 14 : 28-30 364, 366 

Numbers 21 :9 240 

Numbers 22 283,288 

Numbers 23 283, 288 

Numbers 24 283,288 

Numbers 24 : 17-19 340 

Deuteronomy 1 : 34, 35 368 

Deuteronomy 1 : 36-39 368 

Deuteronomy 4 : 13 30 

Deuteronomy 5 : 22 30 

Deuteronomy 10 : 4 30 

Deuteronomy 10 : 11 30 

Deuteronomy 12 : 9 365 

Deuteronomy 12 : 8-11 366 

Deuteronomy 14 : 21 258 

Deuteronomy 18 : 15 292 

389 



390 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES 



PAGE 

Deuteronomy 18 : 15-19 274 

Deuteronomy 21 : 18-21 383 

Deuteronomy 22 : 6, 7 257 

Deuteronomy 22 : 19, 23, 28 287 

Deuteronomy 22 : 20, 21 286 

Deuteronomy 23 : 1 101 

Deuteronomy 23 : 13 385 

Deuteronomy 25 : 4 256 

Deuteronomy 29 : 4 92, 101, 357 

Deuteronomy 30 : 11-14 183 

Deuteronomy 32 : 4 345 

Deuteronomy 32 : 21 355 

Deuteronomy 32 : 43 62, 329 

Deuteronomy 33 : 2 383 

Ruth 4: 11 299 

1 Samuel 7 : 17 297 

1 Samuel 8: 15 267 

1 Samuel 9 298 

1 Samuel 10 : 2-6 298 

2 Samuel 5 : 19, 20 31 

2 Samuel 7 : 12-16 322 

2 Samuel 7 : 14 56, 57, 259 

2 Samuel 23 : 17 31 

1 Kings 9 : 3-9 31 

1 Kings 19 : 10-18 47 

2 Kings 2: 20 59 

2 Kings 25 : 12 297 

2 Kings 25 : 18-21 2'J6 

1 Chronicles 11 : 19 31 

1 Chronicles 14 : 9-11 31 

2 Chronicles 7 : 12-22 31 

Job 17 : 14 319 

Job 28 : 41 256 

Job 33: 18 % 320 

Psalms 1 : 5 385 

Psalms 2 236, 237 

Psalms 2 : 3 L>51 

Psalms 2 : 7 62 

Psalms 2 : 9 340 

Psalms 5: 10 348 



PAGE 

Psalms 8 : 5 7 

Psalms 10 236 

Psalms 14 : 2, 3 348 

Psalms 14 : 3 114 

Psalms 16 321 

Psalms 16 : 8-11 317 

Psalms 19 : 2-4 87 

Psalms 19 : 4 164 

Psalms ly : 10 112 

Psalms 22 Ill, 22, 324 

Psalms 22 : 1 241 

Psalms 22 : 7 251 

Psalms 22 : 9 85 

Psalms 22: 18 246 

Psalms 22 : 22 62 

Psalms 29 330 

Psalms 29 : 1 330 

Psalms 29: 11 102 

Psalms 31 : 5 26 

Psalms 34 : 20 217 

Psalms 35 : 19 245 

Psalms 36 : 1 348 

Psalms 40 : 6 8 20 

Psalms 40 : 7, 8 272 

Psalms 41 241 

Psalms 41: 9 316 

Psalms 45: 4, 5 340 

Psalms 45 : 6,7 238 

Psalms 53 : 3, 4 348-350 

Psalms 63 : 18 58 

Psalms 68:27 101 

Psalms 68 : 83 102 

Psalms 69 241 

Psalms 69 :4 245 

Psalms69: 9 77,323 

Psalms 69 : 22, 23 255 

Psalms 69 : 25 92, 248 

Psalms 78 : 2 306 

Psalms 78 : 5-7 86 

Psalms 78 : 24 245 

Psalms B9 260 

Psalms 89: 19-37 322 

Psalms 90: 15 286 

Psalms 95 : 7, 11 362 

Psalms 95 : 10 3S5 

Psalms 95 : 11 64 

Psalms 96 330 

Psalms 97 330 

Psalms 102 : 25-27 270 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES 



39 1 



PAGE 

Psalms 103 330 

Psalius 103 : 20, 21 330 

Psalms 104 : 4_ 10 

Psalms 109 249-252 

Psalms 109 : 3 245 

Psalms 109 : 8 92 

Psalms 110 237, 340-344 



Psalms 116 
Psalms 118 
Psalms 118 
Psalms 119 : 
Psalms 119 



10 

22, 23. 

26 

24 



Psalms 119 : 161 245 

Psalms 122 : 2 101 

Psalms 122 : 4 86 

Psalms 122 : 4, 5 101 

Psalms 122 : 6, 7 101 

Psalms 132 260 

Psalms 132 : 11-18 322 

Psalms 147 : 9 256 

Psalms 147 : 20 86 

Psalms 143 330 

Psalms 143 : 2 330 

Proverbs 3 : 11, 12 17 

Proverbs 12: 22 345 

Proverbs 18 : 4 114 

Ecclesiastes 7 : 20 114,348 

Song of Solomon 2 : 4 3S3 

Song of Solomon 6 : 8 2S6 ! 

Song of Solomon 7 : 9 384 j 



355 
243! 

243 
326 
290 
2S1 
326 
289; 

92 
326 j 

63 
186 | 
186 | 
341 I 



Isaiah 1 : 9 






Isaiah 6 : 9, 10 — 


Isaiah 7 : 3 


281 


Isaiah 7 : 14 

Isaiah 8 : l^i, 18 


276, 


Isaiah 8 : 3, 4 


Isaiah 8 : 8... 

Isaiah 8 : 14 


282, 2S8, 


Isaiah 8 : 17, 18 


Isaiah 8 : 18 


Isaiah 8 : 23 


Isaiah 9 : 1, 2 

Isaiah 9 : 5 


Isaiah 10 : 20-22 



Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 
Isaiah 



10 : 22, 23. 



PAGE 

.. 355 



15 386 

8 - 360 

19 115 

9 3,92 

11,12 50 

16 45,92 

10 92,356 

13 12,76 

17 320 

3 75 

3-5 233 



: 8-13., 
1-4... 
1-9.... 



7 

11,12 
15 



41 
42 
42 
45 
50 
51 
52 
52 
52 
52 

53 

53: 1 

53 : 2-12... 

53:4, 

56 : 7 

58: 11 

59 : 7, S..., 

59 : 20, 21 

60 : 1 

61 : 1, 2... 



292 

26 

292 

357 

384 

320 

149 

150 

303 

152 

111, 112, 186, 341, 342 

243 

292 

25 

92, 93 

114 

348 



115 

327 

8 382 

5 3S6 

4 151, 153 

1, 2 356 

24 148 



Jeremiah 4 : 4 255 



Jeremiah 7 : 11 

Jeremiah 8 : 6 

Jeremiah 9 : 25 

Jeremiah 26 : 11, 12 
Jeremiah 26 
Jeremiah 27 
Jeremiah 31 
Jeremiah 31 
Jeremiah 31 



J, 93 



255 

92 

32 31 

11,12 31 

1,4,20,22,23 58 

1-40 294 

15 293 



392 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES 



PAGE 

Jeremiah 31 : 31-34 370 

Jeremiah 39 : 1-7 296 

Jeremiah 40: 1 296 

Lamentations 3 Ill, 112 

Ezekiel 36 : 28 58 

Ezekiel 37 : 27 58, 92 

Daniel 7 : 25 87 

Daniel 9 : 7-19 31 

Daniel 9 : 21 3S4 

Daniel 9 : 25, 26 342 

Daniel 9 : 27 232 

Hosea 1 : 6-10 354 

Hosea 1 : 10 92,350 

Hosea 2 : 14 352 

Hosea 2 : 23, 92,350 

Hosea 11 : 1 25, 262, 290 

Hosea 13 : 14 319 

Joel 1 : 8 287 

Joel 2 : 28-32 82 

Amos 5 : 25-27 83 

Amos 8: 13 2S7 

Amos 9 : 11, 12 14 

Micah 5 : 1-5 289 

Micah 5 : 2 74 

Habakkuk 2 : 3, 4 165, 344 

Habakkuk 2 : 4-14 344 

Habakkuk 3 340 

Zephaniah 1 : 14-18 340 

Zechariah9: 9 342 

Zechariah 9 : 9-17 186 

Zechariah 11 : 7 383 

Zechariah 11 : 13 311 

Zechariah 12 : 10 27, 78 

Zechariah 13 : 7 309 

Malachi 1 : 2, 3. 350 

Malachi 2 : 3 380 

Malachi 3 : 1 76, 92, 248 

Malachi 4 : 5.... 240 

Malachi 4 : 5, 6 92, .'48 



PAGE 

Matthew 1 : 22, 23 276, 290 

Matthew 2:6 74,289 

Matthew 2 : 15 25, 262, 290 

Matthew 2 : 16 278 

Matthew 2 : 17, 18 312 

Matthew 2 : 18 293 

Matthew 2 : 19, 20 292 

Matthew 2 : 22 113 

Matthew 2 : 23 104, 110 

Matthew 3: 3 74,75, 233 

Matthew 3 : 14 86 

Matthew 5 : 39, 41 256 

Matthew 6 : 13 86 

Matthew 6 : 26 256 

Matthew 6 : 32 359 

Matthew 8 : 17 25 

Matthew 11 : 10 74, 76 

Matthew 11 : 14 240,218 

Matthew 12 : 18-21 26 

Matthew 12 : 38-40 195 

Matthew 13 : 11-17 308 

Matthew 13 : 14 279 

Matthew 13 : 34, 35 305 

Matthew 15 : 6 386 

Matthew 15 : 8,9 12, 74, 76 

Matthew 17 : 10-12 248 

Matthew 21 : 9 147 

Matthew 21 : 13 92 

Matthew 21 : 42 308 

Matthew 22 : 29 386 

Matthew 22 :32 337 

Matthew 22 : 44 340 

Matthew 23 : 39 148 

Matthew 24: 15 232 

Matthew 24 : 36 187 

Matthew 26: 31 309 

Matthew 26 : 73 Ill 

Matthew 27 : 9 311 

Matthew 27 : 27-31 246 

Matthew 27 : 46 241,324 

Matthew 22 : 29 386 

Matthew 15 : 6 386 

Mark 1 : 2 76 

Mark 1 : 3 233 

Mark 6 : 6 113 

Mark 7 : 6, 7 12 

Mark 7 : 7 77 

Mark 9 : 11-13 248 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES 



393 



PAGE 

Mark 9 : 13- 240 

Mark 9 : 4S 14S 

Mark 10 : 24 328 

Mark 11 : 9... 147 

Mark 11 : 17 92 

Mark 12 : 10, 11 .. 308 

Mark 12 : 26 337 

Mark 12 : 36 340 

Mark 13: 14 232 

Mark 14 : 27 309 

Luke 1 : 17 92, 240, 248 

Luke 2 : 23 74, 77 

Luke 2 : 32 278 

Luke 3 : 4-6 233 

Luke 4 : 18, 19 327 

Luke 4 : 28-30 113 

Luke 7 : 27.. 76 

Luke 8 : 31 1S4 

Luke 10 :24 173 

Luke 11 :52 386 

Luke 12 : 24 256 

Luke 14: 26 256 

Luke 17 : 9 So 

Luke 19 : 38 147 

Luke 19 : 46 92 

Luke 20 : 17 308 

Luke 20 : 37 241 

Luke 20 : 42, 43 340 

Luke 21 : 20 232 

Luke 22 : 37 241 

Luke 23 : 46 26 

Luke 24 : 5, 6 85 

Luke 24: 27 386 

Luke 24 : 27, 44, 45 240 

Luke 24 : 45 387 

John 1 : 21, 25 243 

John 1 : 23 233 

John 1 : 29, 36 24? 

John 1 : 46 Ill, 113 

John 1 : 51 244 

John 2 : 17 74, 77, 323 

John 2 : 19, 20 53 

John 3 : 3-5 44 

John 3 : 6 53 

John 3 : 12, 13 86 

John 3: 14 53,240 

John 4: 10,11 53 



PAGE 

John 4 : 14, 15 53 

John 4: 32, 33 53 

John 4 : 35 53 

John 6: 26-59 291 

John 6 : 27 53 

John 6 : 31 245 

John 6 : 32 53 

John 6 : 45 110, 279 

John 6 :52, 53, 63 53 

John 7 : 3S 113, 279 

John 7 : 42 75 

John 7:52 Ill 

John 8 : 38, 39, 56 53 

John 10 : 35, 36 53 

John 11 : 11, 12 53 

John 11 : 49-52 283, 288 

John 12 : 13 147 

John 12: 40 64,279 

John 12 : 40, 41 243 

John 13 : 8 53 

John 13: 13 240, 316 

John 15 : 25 240, 245, 323 

John 17 328 

John 17:5 238 

John 17 : 12 280 

John 17 : 24, 25 53 

John IS : 9 280 

John 19 :24 245 

John 19 : 28 323 

John 19 : 36 246 

John 19 : 37 27, 74, 78 

John 20 : 27 53 

John 21 : 5 329 

Acts 1 : 15, 16 252 

Acts 1 : 16 249 

Acts 1 : 20 92, 248 

Acts 2 : 17-21 74, 82, 279 

Acts 2 : 19, 20 279 

Acts 2 : 25-28 64 

Acts 2 : 25-32 317 

Acts 2 : 34, 35 340 

Acts 3: 22 292 

Acts 3 : 22, 23 275 

Acts 6 : 11 30S 

Acts 7 : 37 275, 292 

Acts 7 : 42, 43 74, S3 

Acts 8 : 32, 33 64 

Acts 11 : 16 279 



394 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES 



PAGE 

Acts 13 : 33 237, 238 

Acts 13 : 35 317 

Acts 13 : 36, 37 319 

Acts 13: 40 110 

Acts 13: 47 279 

Acts 15 : 15 110 

Acts 15 : 16 64 

Acts 15 : 16, 17 14 

Acts 17 : 28 xiv. 

Acts 18 : 24 xii. 

Acts 28:26 279 

Eomans 1 : 3 261 

Romans 1: 17 344,345 

Romans 2 : 24 149 

Romans 3 : 10 114 

Romans 3 : 10-18 348 

Romans 4 : 3-25 252 

Romans 4 : 11, 12, 16 268 

Romans4 : 16, 18 261 

Romans 4: 17 252 

Romans 7 116 

Romans 9 : 6-8 266 

Romans 9 : 7 261 

Romans 9: 13 350 

Romans 9 : 14-24 351 

Romans 9: 17 27 

Romans 9 : 25, 26 92, 351 

Romans 9 : 27-29 355 

Romans 9 : 33 45, 92 

Romans 10 : 6-8 183 

Romans 10 : 11 45,92 

Romans 10 : 15 150 

Romans 10: 18 164 

Romans 10: 19-21 355 

Romans 11 : 2-4 47 

Romans 11 : 8 92, 279, 356 

Romans 11 : 9, 10 255 

Romans 11 : 12 6 

Romans 11 : 26, 27 3, 92 

Romans 13 : 14 88 

Romans 14 : 11 357 

Romans 14: 21 87 

Romans 15 : 3 323 

1 Corinthians 1 : 19 188 

1 Corinthians 2 : 9 151 

1 Corinthians 2 : 13 30 

1 Corinthians 5 : 7 247, 291 



PAGE 

1 Corinthians 5 : 8 291 

1 Corinthians 9 : 9, 10 256 

1 Corinthians 10 116 

1 Corinthians 10 : 1, 2 291 

1 Corinthians 10 : 3-5, 16, 17 291 

1 Corinthians 10 : 11 57 

1 Corinthians 13 xiii. 

1 Corinthians 14 : 21,22 50 

1 Corinthians 15 : 54 360 

1 Corinthians 15 : 25-27 340 

1 Corinthians 15 : 55 153 

2 Corinthians 3 116 

2 Corinthians 4 : 13 153 

2 Corinthians 6 : 16 58, 92 

2 Corinthians 6 : 17 303 

2 Corinthians 6 : 18 56, 259 

2 Corinthians 8 360 

2 Corinthians 12 : 9 85 

Galatians3: 7-16 263 

Galatians 3 : 8 16, 92 

Galatians 3 : 11-13 344, 345 

Galatians 3 : 15-18 268 

Galatians 3 : 16 260 

Galatians 3 : 28, 29 262 

Galatians 4 : 21-31 116, 117 

Galatians 4: 24 134 

Ephesians 4: 8 58 

Ephesiaus 5 : 14 114 

Philippians 3 : 21 85 

Colossians 1 : 26 173 



2 Timothy 2:8. 



288 



Titus 1 : 12 xiv. 

Titus 1 : 15 -53 

Hebrews 1 : 5 62,237, 233, 259, 322 

Hebrews 1 : 6 9, 62, 190, 329 

Hebrews 1 : 6-9 380 

Hebrews 1 : 7 10 

Hebrews 1 : 8, 9 238 

Hebrews 1 : 10-12 270 

Hebrews 1 : 11, 12 190 

Hebrews 1:13 340 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES 



395 



PAGE 

Hebrews 2 : 6-8 ._ 7, 64 

Hebrews 2 : 8-11 9 

Hebrews 2 . 12 62 

Hebrews 2- 12,13 324 

Hebrews 2 : 13 63 

Hebrews 3 : 7 to 4 : 11 362 

Hebrews 3 : 12-19 367 

Hebrews 4 : 1-11 367 

Hebrews 4 : 3 64 

Hebrews 4 : 7 362 

Hebrews 5 5 237 

Hebrews 5 : 5-10 238 

Hebrews 6 : 13-19 269 

Hebrews 7 116, 123, 291 

Hebrews 7 : 3 124 

Hebrews 8 : 8-13 370 

Hebrews 10: 1 291 

Hebrews 10 : 7 272 

Hebrews 10 : 5-9 20 

Hebrews 10 : 5-10 273 

Hebrews 10 : 10 24 



PAGE 

Hebrews 10: 15-18 370 

Hebrews 10 : 36-39 367, 369 

Hebrews 10 : 37, 38 165 

Hebrews 11 260 

Hebrews 11 : 3 87 

Hebrews 12 : 5-13 17 

1 Peter 1 : 12 173 

1 Peter 1 : 10-13 322 

1 Peter 1: 19 247 

1 Peter 1 : 25 279 

1 Peter 2 : 6, 8 45 

1 Peter 2 : 7 308 

1 John 2 : 23 47 

Revelation 247 

Revelation 9 : 1, 2, 11 184 

Revelation 11 : 7 184 

Revelation 17 : 18 184 

Revelation 20 : 1, 3 184 



INDEX OF AUTHORS REFERRED TO 



Addison, 169, 374. 

^Eschylus, 70, 212, 215, 217, 218, 231, 332, 

334. 
Alexander, 5, 6, 356. 
Alford, 10, 294, 356, 362. 
Ambrose, 329. 
Anselm, 329. 
Antimachus, 69. 
Aquinas, 329. 
Aratus, xiv. 

Aristotle, 38, 66, 110, 160. 
Arnold, Matthew, x. 

Baur, 53. 

Baiimlein, 50. 

Beck, 194, 195. 

Beet, 53. 

Bengel, 165. 

Beza, 362. 

Biesenthal, 329. 

Bleek, 24, 152, 189, 194, 315, 362. 

Bonnie, 187, 329, 362. 

Bredenkamp, 6. 

Briggs, 80. 

Broadus, 294, 301, 311. 

Bulwer, 227. 

Bunyan, 119,121,123. 

Burke, xiii., 141,155, 374. 

Burns, xiv. 

Byron, 120, 208, 335. 

Calvin, 79, 80, 301. 

Carlyle, 124, 125, 207. 

Chambers, 80. 

Chatham, 156. 

Cheyne, 5, 6, 276. 

Cicero, 69, 70, 71, 72, 108, 109, 147, 164, 329, 

374. 
Cleanthes, xiv. 
Coleridge, xiii. 
Conybeare, 53. 
396 



1 Conybeare, Mrs., 228. 
Cook, 16. 

Cowper, xiv., 184, 185. 
Cremer, 189. 
Cruttwell, 222. 

Dante, 119, 121, 123. 

Davidson, 136. 

Dawson, 87, 

De Foe, 232. 

Delitzsch, 10, 16, 270, 234, 329, 356. 

Demosthenes, xii. 

De Wette, 194, 329. 

Dindorf, 362. 

Dopke, xvii., 134, 187, 372, 373, 374, 375, 

376, 377, 378, 383. 
Donaldson, 50. 
Drake, 80. 

Eichhorn, 134. 

Ellicott, 10, 54, 362, 366. 

Empedocles, 143. 

Ennius, 41, 70, 163, 164. 

Epicharmus, 143. 

Epicurus, 70, 108, 109. 

Erasmus, 84. 

Ernesti, 190. 

Euripides, 66,211, 217. 

Everett, Edward, 143. 

Ewald, 80, 152, 154, 276, 315, 362. 

Fairbairn, 301. 
Fallue, 84. 
Farrar, xvi. 
Flatt, 53. 
Flugge, 134. 
Fox, 155. 
Fiirst, 12. 

Geier, 189. 
Geikie,84. 



INDEX OF AUTHORS REFERRED TO 



397 



Gerlach, Otto von, 278. 

Gervinus, 206. 

Gesenius, 11, 12, 79, 285. 

Gill, SO. 

Gladstone, 1S4. 

Goethe, 120, 121, 206, 208, 228, 229, 335. 

Goodwin, 98, 177, 179. 

Grant, 38. 

Griesbach, 190. 

Hackett, 321. 

Hardingbam, G. G., 41. 

Hartung, 50. 

Henderson, 5, 6. 

Hemsterhuvs, 105. 

Hengstenberg, 154, 321. 

Heraclitus, 143. 

Herodotus, 208. 

Hesiod, 39, 130, 134, 210. 

Hilgenfeld, 43. 

Hitzig, 6, 79, SO, 294. 

Hodge, 356. 

Hofmann, 9, 10, 118, 154, 329, 352, 356. 

Homer, 38, 65, 93, 103, 104, 110, 134, 144, 

146, 159, 161, 162, 163, 176, 375. 
Horace, 41. 
Hugo, 229, 230. 
Hupfeld, 154. 

Irby, Miss, 141. 

Jamblicbus, 106, 163. 
Jennings, 362. 
Johnson, Dean, 8. 
Johnson, Samuel, 141, 142. 
Jowett, 65, 107, 116. 
Julian, 1S4. 

Keightly, 203. 

Keil, 16, 79, 80, 301. 

Kennicott, 250. 

Kimchi, 79. 

Kling, 53. 

Klotz, 50. 

Knobel, 5, 6. 

Kriiger, 50. 

Kuenen, xvii., 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 
18, 48, 50, 51, 56, 57, 58, 63, 118, 119, 139, 
171, 184, 237, 239, 251, 272, 273, 315, 317, 
318, 320, 323. 

Kuhner, 50. 



Lange, 16, 294. 
Le Clerc, 187. 
Liddell and Scott, 50. 
Longfellow, 223. 
Lowe, 362. 
Lucian, 96, ISO. 
Liicke, 194. 
Liinemann, 329. 
Lucretius, 211. 
Luthart, 80. 
Luther, 19, 154. 

Mackenzie, Miss, 141. 

Mansel, 294. 

Marsh, 118. 

Maurer, 80. 

Maximus Tyrius, 99, 104, 161, 162. 

Mendelsohn, 250. 

Michaelis, J. D., 189. 

Michaelis, J. H., 189. 

Milton, xiv., 200, 375. 

Meyer, 54, 55, 149, 152, 153, 154, 187, 285, 

294, 315, 355, 363. 
Moliere, 20S, 229. 
Miiller, Max, 228. 

Nagelsbach, 295, 356. 
Nettleship, 221. 
Newman, W. L., 160. 

Olshausen, 194. 
Orelli, 194. 
Origen, 152, 375. 

Paley, 32. 

Palfrey, 118, 197, 278. 

Parmenides, 143. 

Passow, 50. 

Paul us, 349. 

Perowne, 362. 

Philo, xiii., 43, 100, 101, 133, 135, 136, 375. 

Pindar, 219. 

Plato, xii., 65, 66, 68, 93, 94, 95, 104, 105, 

106, 173, 174, 184, 374. 
Plumptre, 294. 

Plutarch, 89, 97, 98, 118, 144, 146, 179. 
Politz, 134. 
Pope, 84. 
Porphyry, 89. 

Quintilian, 109. 

I 



398 



INDEX OF AUTHORS REFERRED TO 



Eacine, 229. 

Eosenniiiller, 79, 80, 134. 
Eost, 50. 

Eousseau, 141, 205. 
Euckert, 187. 
Euskin, 173. 

Sayce, 124. 

Schiller, 205, 229. 

Schleusner, 277. 

Schniid, Ch. Fr., 189. 

Schrader, 152. 

Schultz 53, 134, 362. 

Semler, 190. 

Seneca, 100, 146, 164. 

Shakespeare, xiv., 200, 230, 362. 

Siegfried, 43 

Sophocles, 38, 70, 215, 216, 217. 

Sophocles, E. A ., 278. 

Spenser, 119, 122, 200. 

Stier, 53, 84, 356. 

Stuart, 9, 191,321, 370. 

Surenhusius, 382. 

Swift, 123. 

Synesius, 118. 

Taylor, 99, 107. 
Taylor, Bayard, 207. 
Taylor, C , 250. 
Taylor, Jeremy, 44. 
Teller, 190. 



Tennyson, 229, 230, 239. 

Terence, 99. 

Thayer, J. H., 50, 278. 

Theodore of Mopsuestia, 191. 

Tholuck, 23, 118, 189, 194, 196, 280, 329, 355. 

Toy, xvii., 8, 45, 46, 79, 80, 81, 83, 92, 114, 
115, 152, 154, 166, 232, 239, 275, 278, 285, 
315, 320, 323, 325, 337, 339, 341, 354, 359, 
360, 361, 362. 

Trollope, 84. 

Turretin, 134. 

Tyrtseus, 66. 

Umbreit, 189, 194. 

Virgil, 41, 211,220. 
Voltaire, 208. 

Wagner, Eichard, 230. 

Webster, 375. 

Webster, Noah, 143. 

Welldon, 38. 

Westcott, 24, 25. 

Wetstein, 187. 

Whittier, 199. 

Woods, Leonard, 277, 278, 280, 290, 292. 

Wright, 79. 

Xenophon, 95. 

Zacharias of Chrysopolis, 152. 
Zimnier, 10. 






INDEX OF AUTHORS QUOTED 



Abbot, Ezra, 44. 

Abbott, Lyman, 249. 

Addison, 138. 

Adeney, W. F., 195, 196. 

^Eschylus, 1S1,214. 

Alexander, 23-"), 274, 2S9, 305, 340, 342. 

Alford, 153, 1G5, 194, 235, 262, 314, 357, 359. 

Aristotle, 67, 89, 103, 109, 162, 196. 

Bacon, 192. 

Bahr, 220. 

Bartheleiny Saint-Hilaire, 103. 

Baumgarten-Crusius, 349. 

Bilrotb, 188. 

Bissell, 31. 

Blackie, 211. 

Bleek, 325, 366. 

Bouillet, 90. 

Briggs, 197. 

Broadus, 14, 75, 77, 284, 2S7, 302, 337. 

Bryant, 145, 160. 

Bulwer, 205, 225, 226. 

Burnham, Sylvester, 242, 266. 

Buuyan, 125, 170. 

Carlyle, 124, 130, 207. 

Chase, Thos., 164. 

Cheyne, 234. 

Chrysostom, 190. 

Churton, 91. 

Cleanthes, xiv. 

Cloag, 250. 

Cicero, 40,41, 42, 69, 70, 71, 72, 147. 

Conybeare, 264. 

Conybeare and Howson, 86, 101. 

Cope, 38, 103. 

Cowper, 154. 

Craik, 200, 201. 

Cranch, 142. 

Cruttwell, 220, 221, 222. 

Curtius, 212, 213. 

Dante, 223. 



Darwin, 304. 

Davidson, 118, 119, 134, 135, 136, 186. 

Delitzsch, 307, 325, 328. 

De Wette, 23, 1S9. 

Dopke, 375, 376, 381, 382. 

Driver, 341. 

Dry den, 84. 

Dunscombe, 163. 

Duntzer, 205. 

Dwight, Timothy, 363. 

Ebrard, 329, 379. 
Ellicott, 59. 
Ennius, 70. 
Epictetus, 104. 
Euripides, 72, 96, 158. 
Everett, Edward, 142, 173. 
Ewald, 310, 320. 



Farrar, 



,264. 



Gallus, 69. 
Garnett, 204. 
Gervinus, 201, 202. 
Gladstone, 140, 141, 157, 171. 
Godet, xv., 268. 
Goodrich, 155, 156. 
Goodwin, 89. 
Gordon, A. J., 85. 
Gosman, 265. 
Gould, 55. 
Grote, 215. 
Grotius, 192. 
Guthrie, 85. 

Hackett, 15, 39, 82, 104, 146, 249. 
Hall, Robert, 87, 141, 172. 
Hanna, Rev. Win. T. C, xii. 
Hengstenberg, 80, 318. 
Hesiod, 36, 37, 67, 89, 179. 
Higginson, T. W., 104. 
Hitzig, 2S6. 
Hodge, 54, 150, 357. 

399 



400 



INDEX OF AUTHORS QUOTED 



Hofmann, 174. 

Homer, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 65, 71, 72, 83, 93, 
94,95,96,97,98,99,109, 143, 144, 145, 146, 
147, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 174, 175, 176, 
177, 179, 180, 182, 211. 

Hood, Edwin Paxton, 204. 

Horace, 155, 157, 171. 

Jacobitz, 96. 

Johnson, Samuel, 142. 

Jowett, 66, 167. 

Julian, 68, 106, 162, 163, 183. 

Junius, 157. 

Keightly, 203, 211. 

Kingsley, 223. 

Kling, 54. 

Kuenen, 1, 2, 12, 14, 15, 16, 44, 45, 47, 48, 
49, 62, 119, 139, 236, 237, 238, 239, 250, 270 
272, 290, 292, 316, 317, 326, 362, 363. 

Ladd, 315. 

Lightfoot, 261, 262, 314. 
Long, 164. 
Longfellow, 199. 
Lowell, 125, 141, 202. 
Lucao, 157. 
Lucian, 40, 105, 176. 
Luther, 137. 
Lysias, 88. 

Mac Lane, Rev. W. W., 241. 

Macrobius, 221. 

Mahly,218. 

Mansel, 85. 

Meyer, 59, 79, 116, 117, 118,244,259,349, 

350. 
Milton, 140, 143, 155, 169, 170, 203. 
Moulton, 366. 
Muller, K. O., 129, 130, 131, 210, 213, 215, 

217, 219, 230. 

Orelli, 193. 

Paley,219, 336. 

Palfrey, 191. 

Philo, 90. 

Pindar, 96, 106, 130, 210, 219. 

Pitt, 155. 

Plato, 31-38, 65, 103, 107, 126-128, 143, 158, 

159, 175, 176, 181, 183. 
Plotinus, 105, 106. 
Plumptre, 214. 



Plutarch, 39, 103, 145, 176, 177, 178, 179, 

180. 
Pocock, 350. 
Proclus, 107. 

Reid, 41. 
Reuss, 43, 3S0. 
Riddle, 118. 
Riehm, 237. 
Ruckert, 350. 
Ruskin,S7, 102, 209. 

Sanday, 29, 218. 

Scherer, 205, 206, 207, 228. 

Schiller, 205. 

Schneidewin, F. W., 216. 

Scott, Rev. James, 109. 

Sears, 86. 

Seneca, 42. 

Shakespeare, 141, 157, 201, 257. 

Sherlock, 192. 

Shore, 54. 

Smith, R. Payne, 296. 

Sophocles, 147, 178. 

Southey, 14«>, 157. 

Stainsbury, 229. 

Steele, 129. 

Stuart, 190. 

Strabo, 69, 146. 

Taylor, 161. 

Taylor, Bayard, 206, 332. 
Taylor, Wm. M., 87. 
Tennyson, 173, 198, 200, 222. 
Tholuck, 27, 187, 196, 210, 278, 290. 
Tooke, 40, 68, 96, 177. 
Trollope, 41. 
Turpie, 2, 7. 

Van Dyke, Henry J., 229. 

Vatablus, 319. 

Virgil, 42, 142, 146, 155, 156, 164, 168, 169. 

Way land, 85. 

Webster, Daniel, 84, 172. 

Welldon,28, 67. 

White, Richard Grant, 202. 

Wilkins, 99. 

Winer 55. 

Woods, Leonard, 276. 

Wright, 78. 



INDEX OF BOOKS REFERRED TO OR QUOTED 



PAGE 

Academical Lectures. Palfrey 191 

Academics of Cicero The. E,eid....41, 70 
Advancement of Learning, The. 

Bacon 192 

Adventurer, The. Johnson 142 

iEclogues. Spenser 123 

JEneid. Virgil 

42, 100, 142, 146. 156, 169, 220, 221, 222 

Agamemnon. iEschylus 214, 333 

Aids to Reflection. Coleridge xiii. 

Alcibiades. Plato 105 

Allegories of the Sacred Laws. The. 

Philo 90, 101 

American Commentary. The 55 

Among My Books. Lowell 141 

Analyse Raisonnee. Fallue 84 

Andria. Terence 99 

Andromache. Euripides 72 

Annals, The. Ennius 41 

Antigone. Sophocles 38. 178 

Apocrypha, The 91 

Apocrypha of the Old Testament, 

The. Bissell 31 

Apology, The. Plato 159 

Apology for Herodotus. Estienne... 208 
Authorship of the Fourth Gospel, 

The. Abbot 44 

Bacchanals, The. Euripides 208 

Bashfulness. Plutarch 179 

Battle of the Books, The. Swift 123 

Book of Common Prayer, The 44 

British Eloquence. Goodrich 155, 156 

Bucolics, The. Virgil 220 

Caesar. Voltaire 209 

Caesars, The. Julian 183 

Caxtoniana. Bulwer 227 

Changes of Scripture Names, The. 
Philo 90, 101 



PAGE 

Charon. Lucian 96 

Children of Hercules, The. Eurip- 
ides 219 

Choephorae. Euripides 218 

Christology. Hengstenberg 321 

Cicero. Trollope 41 

Commentaries of Caesar, The. Trol- 
lope 84 

Commentaries on Shakespeare. Ger- 

vinus 201 

Commentary : Critical, Doctrinal, 

and Homiletical. LaDge 118, 265 

Commentary on Ephesians. Ellicott. 59 
Commentary on Ephesians. Meyer. 59 
Commentary on First Corinthians. 

Bilroth 188 

Commentary on Matthew. Gerlach. 278 

Commentary on the Acts. Gloag 250 

Commentary on the Epistle to the 

Hebrews. Stuart 190 

Commentary on the Psalms. Heng- 
stenberg 318 

Commentary on the Timaeus of 

Plato. Proclus 107 

Comus. Millon 203 

Conjugal Precepts. Plutarch 97 

Consolation to Apollonius. Plutarch. 98 
Contradictions of the Stoics, The. 

Plutarch 89 

Convito, II. Dante 223 

Cowper's Letters 154 

Creeds of Christendom, The. Schaff. 61 

Daniel the Beloved. Wm, M. Taylor. 87 
Defense of the Portraits. Lucian... 104 

DeFinibus. Cicero 108 

Delay of the Divine Justice, The. 

Plutarch 103, 145 

De Officii*. Cicero 41 

De Oratore. Cicero 99 

401 



402 INDEX OF BOOKS REFERRED TO OR QUOTED 



PAGE 

De Oratore of Cicero, The. Wilkins. 99 

Der Brief an die Hebraer. Bleek 366 

Der Brief an die Hebraer. Kurtz.... 367 

Die Biisser. Wagner , 230 

Die Sieger. Wagner 230 

Discouragements and Supports of the 
Christian Minister, The. Bobert 

Hall 171 

Dissertations. Maximus Tyrius.,104, 161 

Diver, The. Schiller.- 2i>5 

Divine Comedy, The. Dante 123, 223 

Doctor, The. Southey 140, 157 

Eclogues. Yirgil 155, 168 

Electra. Euripides 218 

Elements of Moral Science, The. 

Wayland 85 

Emile. Bousseau 205 

Enneads, The. Plotinus 105 

Epicharmus, The. Ennius 70 

Epistles of St. Paul, The. Jowett 

116, 1G7 
Epistle to the Hebrews, The. Ebrard. 379 
Epistle to the Hebrews, The. Tho- 

luck 191 

Ernest Maltravers. Bulwer 226, 333 

Ethics of Aristotle, The. Grant 109 

Eurnenides, The. .Eschylns 215 

Eumenides of iEschylus, The. K. O. 

Midler 215 

Euripides Werke. Mfihly 218 

Euripides, with an English Commen- 
tary. Paley 219 

Evidences of Christianity, The. 

Paley 336 

Exegetische Probleme. Zimmer 10 

Fables. La Fontaine 208 

Face Appearing in the Orb of the 

Moon, The. Plutarch 1 14, 179 

Faerie Queene, The. Speuser 

119, 123, 137, 2:0 
Faust. Goethe 

120, 123, 124, 132, 205, 208, 225, 226, 228, 

304, 332, 335. 

Faust. Bayard Taylor 206 

First Bunker Hill Oration. Webster. 172 
Folly of Seeking Many Friends, The 

Plutarch 39 



PAGE 

Fourth Gospel the Heart of Christ, 

The. Sears 86 

Fragments. Euripides 96 

Fragments. Sophocles 147 

Gargantua. Eabelais 208 

Genesis. Gosman 265 

Georgics,The. Virgil 42, 164 

Geschichte der Bomischen Literatur. 

Bahr 220 

Glaucus. ^Eschylus 213 

Gleanings of Past Years. Gladstone. 

140, 157, 171 

Goethe's Helena. Carlyle 124 

Gospel in Ezekiel, The. Guthrie 85 

Gospels in the Second Century, The. 

Sauday 29 

Gotz von Berlichingen. (ioethe 206 

Gulliver's Travels. Swift 123 

Hamlet. Shakespeare 202, 225 

Hebrew Grammar. Ewald 80 

Hebrew Utopia, The. W. F. Adeney. 

195, 195 
Hermann und Dorothea. Goethe.... 228 
Hermeneutik der neutestament- 

lichen Schriftsteller. D6pke...l34, 382 
Heroes and Hero-worship. Carlyle. 125 

Hippolytus. Euripides 158 

History of the English Literature 

and Language. Craik 200 

History of French Literature. Stains- 
bury 229 

History of German Literature. 

Scherer 205, 207, 228 

History of Greece. Grote 215 

History of Greece. Curtius 212 

History of Greek Literature. K. O. 

Midler 210,219 

History of the New Testament Scrip- 
tures. Keuss 43, 380 

History of Roman Literature. Crutt- 

welf. 220 

Holy War, The. Bunyan 123 

Homer. Gladstone 179 

Homer and the Iliad. Blackie 211 

How to Know a Flatterer from a 

Friend. Plutarch 178 

How Young Men Ought to Hear 
Poems. Plutarch 173 



INDEX OF BOOKS REFERRED TO OR QUOTED 403 



PAGE 

Hoyle's Games 169 

Homiletic Keview, The 241 

Idyls of the King Tennyson 

200 222, 230 

Iliad, The. Horner 

32, 34, 35, 36. 37, 39, 40, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71 
72, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 103, 109, 123, 145 
147, 158, 159, 160, 161, 174, 179, 180, 211 
221. 

Iliad, The. Bryant xviii. 

Iliad of Homer, The Pope 84 

Instability of Pleasure, The. Maxi- 

mus Tyrius 99 

International Dictionary, The 143 

Introduction to the New Testament. 

Davidson 186 

Introduction to the Study of the 

Gospels. Westcott 24 

Ion. Plato 32,33,93 

Isis and Osiris. Plutarch 177 

Is there a Sect in Philosophy accord- 
ing to Homer. Maximus Tyrius.. 161 
IsthroiaD Odes, The. Piudar 106 

John Milton. Edwin Paxton Hood... 204 

Kommentar zum Briefe an die He- 
braer. Tholuck 23, 27 

Laches. Plato 176 

Laws. Plato 34, 38, 66, 104, 105 

Learned Retained in Great Families, 

The. Lucian 67 

Lectures on the Quotations. Leonard 

Woods 276, 292 

Les Miserables. Hugo 230 

Lesser Hippias, The. Plato 159 

Les Travailleurs de la Mer. Hugo... 230 

Letters of Cicero, The 109 

Letters of Julian, The 63, 106, 162 

Letters of Junius, The 157 

Letters of Seneca, The... 41, 100, 146, 147 
Letters to Atticus. Cicero.. 40, 71, 72, 147 

Letters to Quintus. Cicero 71 

Lexicon of the Greek Language. 

Liddelland Scott 179 

Life and Epistles of St. Paul, The. 

Conybeareand Howson 86,101,264 



PAGE 

Life and Work of St. Paul, The. 

Farrar xvi., 264 

Life of Milton. Garnett 204 

Life of Plotinus, The. Porphyry 89 

Life, Opinions, and Writings of John 

Milton. Keightly 203 

Limitations of Religious Thought, 

The. Mansel 85 

Literature and Dogma. Matthew 

Arnold x. 

Literature of Ancient Greece, The. 

K. O. Muller 213,217, 230 

Literary Essays. Lowell 202 

Looker On, The 170 

Lothair. Disraeli 333 

Love. Plutarch 178 

Love of Wealth, The. Plutarch S9 

Lucian. Jacobitz 96 

Lucian. Tooke 40 

Lycidas. Milton 140 

Lysias. Plato 175 

Macbeth 141, 257 

Maiden from Afar, The. Schiller 205 

Malade Imaginaire. Moliere 208 

Marble Faun, The. Hawthorne.. 227, 333 

Medea, The. Ennius 164 

Meeting lor the Sake of Receiving 

Instruction. Philo 43 

Memorabilia of Socrates, The. Xeno- 

phon 95 

Messianic Prophecy. Briggs 197 

Midsummer Night's Dream, A. 

Shakespeare 201 

Miuistry of Healing, The. Gordon.. 85 

Modern Painters. Ruskin 87, 102, 87 

Mohammed. Voltaire 209 

Mount Vernon Papers. Everett 142 

Much Ado About Nothing. Shake- 
speare 202 

Mythology. Keightly 211 

New Life, The. Dante 123 

New Testameni Commentary, The. 

Ellicott 54, 366 

New Testament Hermeneutics. 

Dopke 187 

Nicomachian Ethics. Aristotle.. 38, 103 

Nigrinus. Lucian 181 

Notre Dame de Paris. Hugo 230 



404 INDEX OF BOOKS REFERRED TO OR QUOTED 



PAGE 

Observer, The 170 

Odes. Horace 155 

Odyssey, The - 

33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 68, 71, 72, 96, 97, 98 

99, 104, 144, 145, 158, 160, 161, 162, 174 

177, 180, 183. 

Odyssey, The. Bryant xviii. 

CEdipus. Voltaire 209 

CEdipus at Colonus. Sophocles 217 

OZdipus the King. Sophocles 217 

Old Testament in the New, The 

Tholuck 187,189, 196 

Old Testament in the New, The. 

Turpie 2, 7 

Old Testament Prophecy. Orelli.. .. 193 

Olympic Odes. Pindar 96 

On the Work of the Holy Spirit. 

Robert Hall 141 

Oration against Piso. Cicero 164 

Oration on the Departure of Sallust. 

Julian 162 

Origin of the World, The. Dawson. 87 

Pantagruel. Rabelais 208 

Paradise Lost. Milton 

140,155, 1S4, 203, 204 

Paradise Regained. Milion 143 

Paraphrase of Gospels, A. Erasmus. 84 

Parasite, The. Lucian 176 

Parsifal. Wagner 230 

Peshito Version, The 59 

Phsedo. Plato 105, 126 

Pharsalia. Lucan 157 

Philoctetes, Sophocles 216 

Philopatris. Lucian 40 

Phoenician Women, The. Euripides. 

72, 21S 

Pilgrim's Progress, The 

119, 123, 125, 132, 137, 170 

Plato. Jowett xviii. 

Pleasure of Philosophical Discourse, 

The. Maximus Tyrius 161 

Plutarch. Goodwin xviii. 

Plutarch on the Delay of the Divine 

Justice. Hackett ."9 

Poetry of Tennyson, The. Van Dyke. 229 

Politics. Aristotle 160, 162 

Politics of Aristotle, The. W. L. 

Newman 160 



PAGK 

Principle of Cold, The. Plutarch 175 

Principles of !New Testament Quota- 
tion. Rev, James Scott 109 

Progress in Virtue. Plutarch 97 

Prometheus, ^Eschylus 225, 226 

Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. 

Kuenen xvii., 1,44 

Protagoras. Plato 104, 143, 173 

Queen of the Air. Ruskin 209 

Questions of the Day. Everett 173 

Quotations in the New Testament. 
Toy 8,21,46,49,50,187, 278 

Rasselas. Johnson 227, 333 

Reden Jesu. Stier 84 

Relation between Judaism and Chris- 
tianity, The. Palfrey 278 

Republic of Cicero, The. G. G. Hard- 

ingham 41 

Republic, The. Cicero 41 

Republic, The. Plato 

35, 36, 37, 94, 105, 107, 126, 158, 159, 174 
181. 

Revelation of Elias, The 152 

Rhetoric. Aristotle. .. 38, 67, 89, 103, 160 

j Rhetoric of Aristotle. Cope 38 

Robbers, The. Schiller 205 

Rudolf of Hapsburg. Schiller 205 

Saintly Workers. Farrar 88 

Samson Agonistes. Milton 204 

Select Sentences. Epicurus 109 

Seneca's Letters 164 

Sentiments Proper to the Present 

Crisis, The. Robt. Hall 87 

Sermons on the Interpretation of 

Prophecy. Arnold 1% 

Sesame and Lilies. Ruskin 173 

Seven Against Thebes, The. ^Es- 

chylus 181, 213 

Shepherd's Calendar, The. Spenser.. 200 

Smith's Dictionary of the Bible 297 

Sophist, The. Plato 104 

Sophokles Erklart. F. W. Schucide- 

win 216 

Speaker's Commentary, The 

8, 59, 80, 235, 296 
Spectator, The 73,138, 168 



INDEX OF BOOKS REFERRED TO OR QUOTED 405 



PAGE 

Studien und Kritiken 196 

Studies in Shakespeare. R. G. White. 202 
Studies on the Epistles. Godet.. xv., 2G8 
Suppliant Women, The. Euripides.. 219 
Symposium, The. Plato... 33, 65, 127, 181 

Tale of a Tub. Swift 123 

Talmud, The Ill, 134, 314 

Tattler, The 129, 16S 

Targum, The 46. 59, 75 

Teleiuaque. Fenelon 208 

Tempest, The. Shakespeare 202 

Thesetetus. Plato 105, 143, 158 

Theogony, The. Hesiod 

33, 67, 89, 178, 179, 210 

Tide Purer, The. Kingsley 222 

Timseus. Plato 106 

Timon. Lucian 96 

Tragedies of -Eschyl us, The. Plump- 

tre 214 

Tristan and Isolde. Wagner 2o0 

Tusculan Disputations, The. Cicero. 

69, 164 

Ueber doppelten Schriftsinn 196 

Use and Intent of Prophecy, The. 
Sherlock 192 



PAGE 

Use of the Tenses in Hebrew, The. 
Driver 341 

Versuch einer pneumatisch her- 
meneutischen Entwicklung des 
neunten Kapitels im Briefe an die 

Eomer. Beck 195 

Votive Tablets, The. Schiller 228 

Vulgate, The 61 

Wallenstein. Schiller 205, 229 

Wallenstein's Camp. Schiller 229 

Weissagung und Erfullung. Hof- 

mann.. 194 

Who is the Heir of Divine Things ? 

Philo 100, 101 

Wilhelm Meister. Goethe 333 

j Words of Christ, The. Geikie 84 

J Works and Days. Hesiod 37, 39 

World, The.....'. - 169 

Zanoni. Bulwer 225. 226 

Zeitschrift ffii wissenshaftliche The- 
ologie 43 



GENERAL INDEX 



Abbreviated quotations in New Testa- 
ment, 64. 

Adeney: on popular types in Scripture, 
195 ; on the double sense of all proph- 
ecy, 196. 

JEschylus : double reference in, 211-216. 

Alford: on the "seed" of Gal. 3 : 16, 
262 ; on types in Scripture, 194. 

Allegories: the two great, of the New 
Testament, 117 ; in modern literature, 
122, 123: rabbinic, derived from the 
Greek, 134 ; of New Testament : are 
they used as proofs of doctrine? 134- 
137; usually only illustrative, 137, 138. 

Allegories of Plato : Er, 126 ; The Origin 
of Love, 126, 129; The Soul, 126; 
Theuth, 126 ; The Creation of Man, 126 , 
Zamolxis, 126; The Two Loves, 127. 

Allegory : referred to, x., 116-138 ; Plato's, 
of " The Two Loves," compared to 
Paul's of "The Two Sons"; also to 
that of "Melcliizedek," 128; proper 
names in, 130-132, and type distin- 
guished, 116,225, 226. 

Angels never inanimate objects or 
forces, 12. 

Animate: God's care of, 256; laws con- 
cerning, inteuded chiefly to benefit 
men, 256-259. 

Apocrypha: inexact quoting in, 31. 

A polios, did he write Hebrews? xii. 

Aratus and Paul, xiv. 

Arguments from the New Testament 
quotations: are they ever illogical? 
x., 336-371. 

Arnold, on the double sense of all proph- 
ecy, 196. 

Bacon, on double reference, 192. 
Baruch : inexact quoting in, 31. 
406 



Beck, on harmony of type and antitype 
in Scripture, 195,196 

Bible: the freedom of its writers, x., xi.; 
the many styles in, x. 

Bilroth, on relation of Old and New Tes- 
taments, 1S8. 

Bulwer, on types in all literature, 225, 226 

Briggs, on double sense in prophecy, 197. 

Burnham, on types of Old Testament, 
212, 243. 

Change of reference of quotation: with 
change of language, 154-167; without 
change of language, but with change 
of meaning of words, 167-185; without 
change of language or of meaning of 
words, 140-154. 

Christ's rebuke of rabbinic interpreta- 
tion, 386. 

Circumcision in Old Testament, 252-255. 

Composite quotations: in Greek litera- 
ture, 83-99; in Latin literature, 99, 
100; in modern literatures, 101, 102; in 
Philo, 100, 101. 

Conybeare, on the " seed " of Gal. 3 : 16, 
264. 

Dante : overflow of language in, 223, 224. 

Davidson, denies, and yet admits, double 
reference, 186, 187. 

De Wette, on unity of Old and New Dis- 
pensations, 189. 

Dcipke: Tholuck's criticism of, 187; on 
rabbinic interpretation of Old Tes- 
tament, 872-386; admission of, con- 
cerning difference between rabbinic 
and apostolic interpretation of Old 
Testament, 381; on rabbinic folly of 
interpretation, 381-383. 

Double relereuce: x., 1S6-S35 ; debate 



GENERAL INDEX 



407 



concerning, 186-189; denied, 186, 189- 
191 ; denied, and yet admitted by Dav- 
idson, 186, 187; Stuart on, 190; Grotius 
on, 192; Bacon on, 192; Sherlock on, 
192; a better phrase than "double 
sense," 197; in all literature, 198-222; 
in English literature, 198-204; in Ger- 
man literature, 205-208 ; in French 
literature, 203, 209 ; in Greek literature, 
209-220; in Latin literature, 220-222; 
how indicated, 222-231 ; indicated by 
overflow of language, 222-224; indi- 
cated by types, 224-231; in Scripture, 
2 31-331 ; admitted by Kuenen, 236 ; in 
Longfellow, 199; Tennyson, 200; Spen- 
ser, 200, 201 ; Shakespeare, 201-203 ; 
Milton, 203, 204 ; Schiller, 205 ; Goethe, 
206-208; Rabelais, 208; Estienne, 208; 
La Fontaine, 208 ; Moli&re, 208; Fene- 
lon, 203; Voltaire, 208; Homer, 211; 
^Esehylas, 211-216; Sophocles, 215-217; 
Euripides, 217-219; Pindar, 219, 220; 
Virgil, 220-222. 
Double sense: inseparable from proph- 
ecy, 196 ; arising from unity of reli- 
gious experience under Old and New 
Dispensations, 97. 

Ebrard, on rabbinic folly of interpreta- 
tion, 379, 3S0. 

English literature: double reference in, 
198-204. 

Ernest Maltravers : typical element in, 
226. 

Estienne: double reference in, 208. 

Euripides: double reference in, 217-219. 

" Faith," in Heb. 2 : 3, 4, 344-347. 

Farrar, on the "seed" of Gal. 3 : 16, 264. 

Fathers, early : inexact quoting in, 43. 

Faust : typical element in, 226, 228. 

Fenelon: double reference in, 208. 

Fragmentary quotations: reasons for, 
63 ; in Greek literature, 65-69 ; frequent 
in Plato and Aristotle, 66. 

Fulfillment of prophecy : Woods on, 276- 
278; Tholuckon,'278-2S0. 

French literature: double reference in, 
208,209; types in, 229. 

Gentiles: admission of, to church fore- 
told. 355, 356. 



German literature: double reference in, 
205-208. 

Gift of tongues, indicative of weak faith, 
50-54. 

Godet, on the " seed " of Gal. 3 16, 268. 

Goethe : double reference in, 206-208. 

Greek classics : inexact quoting in, 31- 
41 ; double reference in, 209-220; types 
in, 230, 231. 

Greek literature: writer of Hebrews ac- 
quainted with, xii. ; Paul acquainted 
with, xiii.-xv. 

Grotius, on double reference, 192. 

Hamlet: typical element in, 226. 

Hebrew: a dead language in apostolic 
age, 18 ; known by writers of New Tes- 
tament, 24-27. 

Hebrews: reasons for conjecture that 
Apollos wrote, xii. ; writer of, ac- 
quainted with Greek literature, xii. 

Hofmann, on types in history, 194. 

Homer : double reference in, 211. 

Hugo: types in, 229, 230. 

" Immanuel " of Isa. 7 : 14, 276-289. 
Immutability of God a ground of pre- 
diction, 49, 56, 57. 
Infants : slaughter of, 293-303. 
Interpretation, rabbinic, x., 372-387. 
Isaiah a type of Christ, 325-328. 

Kingsley: overflow of language in, 222, 

223. 
Kuenen, admits double reference, 236. 

La Fontaine : double reference in, 208. 
Latin classics: inexact quoting in, 41, 42. 
Latin literature: double reference in, 

220-222. 
Laws of literature, xi. 
Lightfoot, on the " seed " of Gal. 3 : 16, 

261, 262. 
Limitation of Christ's knowledge, 187. 
Literature: chief laws of, xi. 
Longfellow : double reference i«r4.99. 

Manna, The, of 2 Cor. 8, 360, 361. 
Marble Faun, a typical novel, 227, 228. 
McLane, on types in nature and in Old 
i Testament, 241, 242. 



408 



GENERAL INDEX 



MelcMzedek : allegory of, 123, 124. 
Milton : double reference in, 203, 204. 
Moliere : double reference in, 20S ; types 
in, 229. 

Nazarenes: bad character of, 111-113. 
Novels : typical element in, 226-228. 

Old Testament a type of New, 1SS. 

Old Dispensation a prediction of New, 

189. 
Overflow of language, to indicate double 

reference, 222-224; in Tennyson, 222; 

in Kingsley, 222, 223; in Dante, 223, 

224. 
Orelli, on types in nature, history, and 

revelation, 193, 194. 

" Parables," The : of Psalm 78 : 2, SOS- 
SOS. 

Paraphrase: definition of, 84; of quota- 
tions in general literature, 85-91. 

Passover, The: a type of Christ, 247. 

Paul : acquainted with Greek literature, 
xiii.-xv.; and Aratus, xiv.; his style, 
xiii.; Greek his mother tongue, xw; 
his years of preparation for his mis- 
sion to Gentiles, xv., xvi. 

Philo : inexact quoting in, 43. 

Pindar : double reference in, 219, 220. 

"Potter," The: of Zech. 11 : 13,311-310. 

Prayer Book : inexact quoting in, 44. 

Prophecies, Messianic: of two kinds, 
direct and typical, 275 ; division of 
into direct and typical not biblical, 
but modern, 275. 

Prophecy: always has two senses, 196; 
unconscious, 2S3, 2S4. 

"Prophet," The: of Deut. 18 : 15-19, 
274-276. 

Psalm 110: authorship of, 342-344. 

Psalm 109 : not vengeful, 249-252. 

Quotations in New Testament: difficul- 
ties of summarized, ix.; from Septua- 
gint, ix., 1-28 ; from memory, ix., 29-61 ; 
fragmentary, ix., 62-73; paraphrastic, 
ix., 74-91 ; composite, ix., 92-102 ; of sub- 
stance, ix., 103-115; by sound, x., 139- 
185; alleged illogical reasoning from, 



x., 270-272, 336-371 ; translated from 
Hebrew by New Testament writers, 
24-27; usually not for proof, 55; ab- 
breviated in New Testament, 64; frag- 
mentary, in Greek literature, 65-69 ; 
fragmentary, frequent in Plato and 
Aristotle, 66 ; composite, in Greek liter- 
ature, S3-99 ; composite, in Latin liter- 
ature, 99, 100; composite, in Philo, 
100, 101. 

Rabbinic interpretation, x., 372-387; re- 
buked by Christ, 386. 

Rabbinic folly of interpretation : Ebrard 
on, 379, 3S0 ; Reuss on, 380, 381 ; Dopke 
on, 381-3S3. 

Rabelais : double reference in, 208. 

Rachel weeping, 293-303. 

" Ramah," The : of Jer. 31 : 15, 294-299. 

Rasselas, a typical novel, 227. 

Reasoning from the quotations: is it il- 
logical? x., 336-371. 

" Rest" of God, The : in Heb. 3 : 4, 362- 
370 ; Dwight on. 363, 364 ; Moulton on, 
366 ; Bleek on, 366, 367 ; Kurtz on, 367 5 
Kueneu on, 362, 363; Toy on, 367-370. 

Resurrection, The: proved by Christ 
from Exod. 3 : 6, 337-.";40. 

Reuss, on rabbinic folly of interpreta- 
tion, 3S0, 381. 

Sayce, on Melchizedek, 124. 

Schiller: double reference in, 205. 

" Seed," The, of Gal. 3:16: various in- 
terpretations of, 260-269. 

Septuagint, The : only Bible accessible to 
the people, 18. 

Shakespeare: double reference in, 201- 
203. 

" Shepherd," The : of Zech. 13 : 7, 309-311. 

Sherlock, on double reference, 192. 

Slaughter of the infants, 29:3-303. 

Sophocles: double reference in, 215-217. 

Spenser: double reference in, 200, 201. 

Spoils in ancient warfare, 60. 

Stuart, on double reference, 190. 

Substance: quotations of, in Greek liter- 
ature, 103-110. 

Taylor, Jeremy : inexact quoting in, 44. 



GENERAL INDEX 



409 



Tennyson: double reference in, 200; 
overflow of language in, 222; types in, 
230. 

Tholuck: on types of Old Testament, 
240 ; on phrase " That it might be ful- 
filled," 278-230. 

Thorwaldseu's Mercury, 225. 

Toy: on limitation of Christ's know- 
ledge, 187 ; on circumcision in Old 
Testament, 252-255. 

Type and antitype: harmony of, a proof 
of divine origin of Scriptures, 196. 

Type different from allegory, 116, 225, 226. 

Types : in nature, 193 ; in history, 193, 
191; in revelation, 193, 194; popular, 
in Scriptures, 195 ; to indicate double 
reference, 224-231 ; often faint and 
evanescent, 225, 227; Bulwer on, 225, 
226; elude definition, 225, 226; in all 
literatures, 226-231 ; in French litera- 
ture, 229, 230; in Moliere, 229; in 
Hugo, 229, 230; in Wagner, 230; in 
Tennyson, 230; in Greek literature, 
230, 231; abound in Old Testament, 
240: two kinds of, in nature, 241, 242 ; 
two kinds of, in Old Testament, 241, 



242; of Old Testament, Burnham on, 
245; often minute, 291. 

Typical element: in novels, 226-228; in 
Faust, 226-228 ; in Hamlet, 226 ; in Za- 
noni, 226 ; in Ernest Maltravers, 226 ; 
in The Votive Tablets, 228, 229. 

Typical novel : Basselas, 227 ; The Mar- 
ble Faun, 227, 228. 

Unconscious prophecy : instance of, 2S3, 
2S4; Broadus on, 284. 

Versions: proper manner of using, 19,20. 

Virgil : double reference in, 220-222. 

"Virgin," The, of Isa. 7 : 14: discussed, 
276-289 ; Toy on, 280 ; common view of, 
281-289 ; Ewald on, 276 ; Cheyne on, 276. 

Voltaire: double reference in, 208. 

Votive Tablets, The: typical element in, 
228, 229. 

Wagner : types in, 230. 

Wallenstein's Camp : typical element in, 

229. 
Woods, on phrase " That it might be 

fulfilled," 276-278. 
Zanoni : typical element in, 226. 



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